
Class. 



32./ 



Book .i !lv--^ ^- 



/ 



S9 



RKVISED AND ENI.ARGED EDITION. 

EL^ElMfENTs 

OB" 

GENERAL HISTORY; 

EMBRACING ALL THE LEADING EVENTS 

IN THE 

W^ORLD'S HISTORY, 




FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD, 

TO THE END OF THE 

LATE CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES, 



BY JOHN W. BARBER, 

Author of several Historical Works. 



NEV^ HAVEN, CONN.: 

PUBLISHED BY HORACl C. PECK, 

1866. 



Entered according lo Act of Congress, in the year 1865, 

BY JOHN W. BARBEE, 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 









PREFACE, 



The study of Geography is now to a great extent in 
troduced into our schools, but History, its counterpart, is 
to some extent neglected. The works on Geography 
now in use, give a description of every part of the 
known world ; but most of those on History, comprise 
the United States only. The great events of the age 
in other countries, as well as in our own, affect the des- 
tiny of all. Geography and History being closely con- 
nected, each ought to be equally comprehensive. 

History is a narrative of what has taken place on the 
earth among human beings, and is considered by many 
as '* Philosophy teaching by example." It opens a vast 
field for study and contemplation ; the rise and fall of 
empires, the connection of virtuous principles with public 
happiness, the causes which have degraded individuals 
and nations, are all subjects worthy of the close atten- 
tion of beings destined for immortality. 

Works on History have had their usefulness much 
impaired by the introduction of too many names, dates 
and details which give no valuable information. The 
multiplicity of these is apt to confuse the mind, and 
make the study itself dry and uninteresting. This evil 
the author has endeavored to avoid. 

The plan adopted in this work is substantially that 



PREFACE. 



used by Dr. Webster, the great American lexicographer, 
in his historical works for the use of schools. Every 
paragraph, or section, is prefixed with a title expressing its 
subject matter in italic letters. By this, at one glance, 
each subject is distinctly brought before the mind; an 
arrangement claimed to be superior to any other. Some- 
thing of this kind has been in use ever since the art of 
printing was discovered, and its obvious utility must be 
acknowledged. 

It has been generally supposed that the details of Uni- 
versal History could not be introduced into one work with 
sufficient fullness without swellingit to a size which would 
prevent a wide circulation. This is believed to be a mis- 
take. The author, in this work,, which is of the size of 
the Geographies most in use, has given an epitome, or 
summary, of all the most prominent events in Ancient 
and Modern History. He has endeavored, by simplicity 
of language, to make every subject introduced, clear, 
comprehensive, instructive and interesting. It is be- 
lieved that this work will be found well adapted to our 
Common and other Schools as a History, or as a Reading 
Book, and also useful to all who are desirous to obtain 
some knowledge of the World's History. 

New Haven, Conn. J. W. B. 



CONTENTS. 



ANCIENT 


HISTORY. 




FIRST PERIOD 


, 2553 YEARS. 






Page. 




Page. 


Creation, 


. 13 


Egyptian Antiquities, 


. 18 


^^lll of Man, - 


14 


Founding of the Hebrew or 




The Deluge, or Flood, . 


. U 


Jewish nation 


. 19 


Division of the Earth among 




Bondage of the Hebrews in 




the sons of Noah, 


15 


Egypt, 


. 19 


Building of Tower of Babel, 


15 


Account of the Phoenecians, 


. 20 


Assyria and Babylon, 


15 


Colonization of Greece, . 


. 20 


Kingdofn of Egypt, . 


16 


Grecian States or Kingdoms, 


. 21 


Government and Laws, . 


16 


Return of the Hebrews, . 


. 21 


Embalming the Dead, 


17 


The Decalogue, . 


. 22 


Religion of the Egyptians, 


18 







SECOND PERIOD, 700 YEARS. 



Siege of Troy, 
Grecian Games, 
Religion of the Greeks, 
Worship of the Gods, 
Grecian Oracles, 
Divination, or foretelling 

Future Events, . 
Court of Areopagus, 
The Israelites, 



of 



Reign of Solomon, . 
Account of Homer, the Gre- 
cian Poet, . 
Republic of Sparta, 
Laws of Lycurgus, . 
Republic of Athens, 
Draco and Solon, . 
Founding of Carthage, 
Founding of Rome, 



THIRD PERIOD, 430 YEARS. 



Captivity of the Ten Tribes, . 

Captivity of the Jews in 
Babylon, . . . . 

Conquest of Babylon, 

Persian Empire, 

Religion of the Persians, 

Government and Laws, . 

Implements of War, 

Method of attacking and de- 
fending places, . 

War lietwertn the Greeks 
and Persians, 

3attle of Marathon, 

ngratitude of the Athenians, . 

Xerxes, the Persian, 

Battle of Thermopylae, . 



34 



Defeat of the Persians, . 
War of the Peloponnesus, 
Defeat of the Athenians, 
War between Sparta and 

Thebes, 
Epaminondas, the Theban 

General, 

38 Grecian Philosophy, 

I Socrates, the Philosopher, 

39 Death of Socrates, , 
Plato, the Philosopher, . 

39 Pythagoras, , 

40 Cynic Philosophers, 

41 Of the Stoics, 

41 Of the Epicureans, . 

41 I Of Aristotle and Pyrrho, 



CONTENTS 



Page. 

Grecian Historians, 51 

Archimedes, . . . .52 

Grecian Architecture, . . 53 

Grecian Sculpture, &c. . . 54 

Demosthenes, the Orator, . 55 

Philip, of Macedon, . . 56 

Alexander the Great, . . 57 

Battle of the Granicus, . . 57 

Battle of Issus, . . .58 

Siege of Tyre, . . .58 

Final Con(iuest of Persia, . 59 

Conijuest of India, . . .59 

Death of Alexander, . . 60 





Page. 


Rome, 


61 


Komax. Kings, 


CM 


Death of Lucretia, . 


62 


Roman Republic, . 


63 


Judgment of Brutus, 


. 63 


Cincinnatus, the Dictator, . 64 


The Decemvirs, 


. 64 


Military Tribunes, 


. 65 


Censors, , 


. 65 


Invasion of Rome, . 


. 66 


Rome taken and burnt. 


. 66 


Expulsion of the Gauls 


. 67 


Character of the Romans, . 67 



FOURTH PERIOD, 323 YEARS. 



Successors of Alexander, . 69 
Con(|uest of Italy by the Ro- 
mans, 70 

First Punic or Carthaginian 

War, 70 

Regains, the Roman Patriot, . 71 
Second Punic War, . . 71 
Passage of the Alps by Han- 
nibal, 72 

Victories of Hannibal, . . 73 
Ending of the Second Punic 

War 73 

Third Punic War, ... 74 

Destruction of Carthage, . 75 

Corruption of the Roman 

Commonwealth, . . .75 
The Gracchi, . . . .76 
War of JuiTurtha, . . .77 

Social and Civil Wars, . . 77 

Caius Marius, ... 78 

Return of Marius to Rome, . 78 

Sylla. the Dictator, . . 79 

Catiline's Conspiracy, . . 80 

Discovery of Catiline's Plot, . 80 
Julius Cesar and the First 

Triumvirate, . . .81 

Invasion of Britain by Cesar, 81 
Rivalship l)etween Pompey 

and Cesar, .... 82 

Cesar p.\ssing the R\ibicon, . 83 

Cesar's pursuit of Pompey, . 83 

Battle of Pharsalia, . . 84 



Death of Pompey, . . .85 
Cesar's Expedition into Egypt, 85 
Death of Cato, ... 86 
Triumphs of Cesar, . . 87 
Cesar's Administration and 

Improvements, . . .87 
Conspiracy against Cesar, . 88 
Assassination of Cesar, . : 88 
Speech of Antony, . . .89 
Second Triumvirate, . . 89 
Death of Brutus and Cassius, 90 
Antony and Cleopatra, . . 90 
Death of Antony and Cleopatra, 91 
Reign of Octavius, or Augus- 
tus Cesar, . . . .91 
Character and Education of 

the Romans, . . .92 
Industry of the illustrious 

Romans, ... 92 

Their Religion, . . 93 

Government, . . . .93 
Roman Senators, . . .94 
Other Roman Magistrates, . 95 
Roman Citizens, &c. . . 95 
Arts and vSciences. . . .96 
Roman Poets, Historians, &c., 96 
Cicero, the Roman Orator, . 97 
Domestic Life and Manners, . 98 
Diet, and Luxurious Habits, . 99 
Pu!)lic Amusements, . . 99 
Milit;iry Affairs, . . 100 

Military Triumphs, . . 101 



CONTENTS. 



•MODERN HISTORY. 

FIRST PERIOD, 306 YEARS. 





Page. 




Page^ 


Coming of Jesus Christ, 


. 103 


Christian Martyrs, . 


109 


State of the Roman Empire, 


104 


Christian Fathers, . 


110 


Conipiest of Britain, 


. 104 


Trajan, the Emperor, 


111 


Caligula and Nero, 


. 105 


Successors of Trajan, . 


111 


Invasion of Judea, . 


. 106 


Partition of the Empire, 


112 


Siege of Jerusalem, 


. 106 


Constantine, the first Chrif* 




Dispersion of the Jews, 


. 107 


tian Emperor, 


112 


Spread of Christianity, . 


. 108 


Government of the Emperors, 


113 


Persecution of Christians, 


. 108 






SECOND PERIO 


D, 263 YEARS. . 




Reign of Constantine, . 


. 114 


Extinction of the Western 




Corruption of Christianity, 


. 115 


Roman Empire, . 


121 


Removal of the Seat of the 




Reign of Theodoric the Great, 


122 


Empire from Rome to 




Eastern Roman Empire, 


123 


Constantinople, . 


. 115 


Belisarius, . . . . 


123 


Julian, the Apostate, 


. 116 


Conquest of Italy by the 




Attempt to rebuild the Tem- 




Lombards, . . . . 


123 


ple at Jerusalem, 


. 116 


State of the World on the 




Barbarians, 


. 117 


Extinction of the Western 




The Goths, . 


. 117 


or Roman Empire, 


124 


Religion of the Goths, or 




Of Spain, , . . . 


125 


Scandinavians, . 


. 118 


Of Britain, . . . . 


125 


Vandals, 


. 118 


Of England, . . . . 


126 


Ancient Germans, . 


. 119 


Saxon Conquest of England, 


126 


Druidical Religion, 


, 119 


Introduction of Christianity 




Poetry and Learning, . 


. 120 


into Britain, 


127 


Sacking of Rome by Alaric, 


. 120 


Of France, . . . . 


127 


Ravages of Auila, the Hun, 


. 121 


Of the Arabs, or Saracens, . 


128 


THIRD PERIOD 


, 231 YEARS. 




Of Mahomet, . 


. 129 


Conquest of Spain by the 




Of the Koran, 


. 130 


Saracens, or Moors, . 


134 


Mahometan Paradise, . 


. 130 


Christian Kingdoms in Spain, 


135 


Flight of Mahomet, 


. 131 


Defeat of the Saracens, by 




Propagation of Mahometanisra, 132 


Charles Martel, . 


135 


Death of Mahomet, 


. 133 


State of the Eastern Empire, 


136 


Successors of Mahomet, 


. 133 


Arabian Literature, 


136 


Mahometan, or Saracen Em- 




Arts and Sciences, 


137 


Pif« 


. 134 


Attack on Censtaatinople, 


138 



10 



CONTENTS. 



Greek Fire, . 
Feudal System, 
Of the Barons, or Lords, 
Of the Serfs, or Villeins, 



Paffe. 

, 138 
, 138 
, 139 
. 139 



Decline of the Feudal System, 140 
Bishop of Rome, • . . . 140 
Temporal power of Popes, , 141 
Charlemagne, . . . .141 



FOURTH PERIOD, 295 YEARS. 



Reign of Charlemagne, . . 142 
Danish invasion of England, 143 

Alfred the Great, . . .143 

Success of Alfred, . . 144 

Charactei- of Alfred, . . 145 
Conquest of England by the 

Danes, .... 145 

Canute and his Successors, . 146 

Norman Conquest, . .146 

Battle of Hastings, . . .146 

William the Conqueror, . . 147 
State of the Arts, &c. at the 

Norman Conquest, . . 148 

Norman Nobles, or Barons, . 148 



Baronial Castles, &c., . 
Dark Ages, 
Collection of Relics, 
Monastic Institutions, 
Progress of the Monastic 

System, 
Corruption of the Monastic 

System, 
Increase of Papal Power, 
Of the Clergy, 
State of Learning, . , 
Trials by Ordeal, . 
Trial by Combat, . 
Peter the Hermit, . 



FIFTH PERIOD, 200 YEARS. 



First Crusade, . . .156 

March of the Crusaders, . 157 
March of the main body of 

the Crusaders, . . . 157 

Taking of Jerusalem, . . 158 

Second Crusade, . . . 159 

Third Crusade, . . .159 

Fourth Crusade, . . .160 

Chivalry, or Knighthood, . 161 

Education of Knights, . . 161 

Of the Esquires, . . .162 

Of the Knights, , . .162 
Character, (fee. of the Knights, 163 

Of Tournaments, . . . 164 

Orders of Knighthood, . .164 



149 
149 
150 
150 

151 

152 
152 
153 
153 
154 
154 
155 



Effects of Chivalry, . .165 

Henry II., of England, . .166 

Murder of Becket, . . .166 

Magna Charta, . . .167 

Of the Inquisition, . . . 168 
Establishment of the Inqui 

sition, .... 
Scriptural Plays, . 
Genghis Khan, 

End of the Saracen Empire, . 170 

Empire of the Assassins, . 171 
Method of making Assassins, 171 

End of the Crusades, . . 172 

Effects of the Crusades, . 173 



168 



. 169 



SIXTH PERIOD, 222 YEARS, 



Conquest of Wales, . . 174 
War between the English 

and Scots, .... 175 
Swiss Republics, . . . 175 
William Tell, . . . .175 
Wickliffe, the English Re- 

fonoer, .... 176 



Insurrection of Wat Tyler, . 177 
War between the houses of 

York and Lancaster, . 177 

Wars between Englard ard 

France, ... 178 

Joan of Ajtc, the Maid of 

Orleans, ... 179 



CONTENTS. 



11 



bounding of the Turkish 

Empire, 
Of Tamerlane, 
Taking of Constantinople by 

the Turks, . 
Invention of the Mariner's 

Compass, 
Gunpowder, Firearms, . 
Art of Printing, 



Page. 

. 179 
. 180 

. 180 

. 181 
. 182 
. 183 



Pigs- 
Moorish Kingdom of Greiada, 183 
184 
184 
185 



Conquest of Grenada, . 
Portuguese Discoveries, 
Of Columbus, 
Columbus' application foi 

Assistance, . 
First Voyage and Discovery 

of Columbus, 



SEVENTH PERIOD, 115 YEARS. 



Columbus' Return from his 
first Voyage, 

Fate of Columbus, . 

Of Vespucius, Calx)t, and 
other Discoverers, 

Invasion of Mexico, 

A.(l Vance of Cortez to the 
City of Mexico, . 

Death of Montezuma, 

Con(juest of Mexico, 

Invasion of Peru, . 

Conquest of Peru, . 

Civilization of the Mexi- 
cans and Peruvians, . 

Religion of the Mexicans, 

Religious State of Chris- 
tendom, 



IBS 
189 

189 
191 

191 
192 
193 
194 
194 

195 
195 

196 



EIGHTH PERIOD, 168 YEARS. 



Of the Virginia Settlers, 


206 


Pocahontas, the Indian Prin 




cess, .... 


. 207 


Indian Massacre in Virginia, 


. 207 


Of the Native Indians, . 


. 208 


Manners, Customs, &c., of 




the Indians, 


. 209 


Of the Puritans, . 


. 209 


Persecution of the Puritans, 


. 210 


Plymouth Settlers, . 


. 210 


Sufferings of the Plymouth 




Colonists, . 


. 211 


Dutch Settlements, 


. 212 


Destruction of the Pequots, 


. 212 


King Philip's War, 


. 213 


William Penn, 


. 214 



186 



186 



Reformation by Luther, . . 196 
Progress of the Reformation, 197 
Overthrow of the Papal 

power in England, . . 198 
Reformation in Scotland, . 199 
Of the Jesuits, . . .200 
Progress of the Jesuits, . . 200 
Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew's, .... 201 
Reign of Queen Mary, . . 202 
Queen Elizabeth's Reign, . 202 
Spanish Armada, . . . 203 
Gunpowder Plot, . . .203 
French Settlements in North 

America, .... 204 
First English Settlement, . 205 



Salem V^itchcraft, . . .215 
Account of the Bucaneers, .216 
Sovereigns of the House of 

Stuart, 
Tyranny of Charles I., . 
War between Charles and 

the Parliament, . 
Execution of Charles I., 
Oliver Cromwell, . 
The Commonwealth, 
Character of Cromwell, . 
Of Russia, 
Peter the Great, 
Of Sweden and its Sovereigns, 221 
Of Prussia and the two 

Fredericks 222 



. 216 
. 217 

. 218 
. 218 
. 219 
. 220 
. 220 
. 220 
. 220 



12 



CONTENTS. 



Of Holland, . . . .223 

Of Germany, . . . .223 

Fi-Gncb and Indian Wars, . 224 
King William's and Queen 

Anne's Wars, . . .225 

Indian War in Carolina, . 225 

Capture of Louisburg, . . 22G 



Braddock's Defeat, 
Progress of the War, 
Capture of Quebec, 
Causes of the American 

Revolution, 
Stamp Act, . . . , 
Destniction of Tea at Boston, 



227 
227 
228 

229 
229 
230 



NINTH PERIOD. 



Continental Congress, . . 231 
Skirmish al Lexington, . . 232 
Battle of Bunker's^Hill, . . 233 
Arnold's March through the 

Wilderness, . . . 234 

Assault on Quebec, and 

death of Gen. Montgomery, 234 
Declaration of Independence, 235 
Brittle on Long Island, . . 236 
Death of Capt. Hale, . . 236 
Retreat of Washington, and 

Battle of Trenton, . . 237 
Expedition of Gen. Burgoyne, 238 
Treason of Arnold, . . 239 

Sufferings of the American 

Army 239 

Arrival of the French Troops, 240 
War in the Southern States, 240 
Capture of Cornwallis, . . 241 
Conclusion of the War, , .241 
Disbanding of the Army, . 242 
Confederation of the States, . 242 
Organization of the Federal 

Government, . . . 243 
Causes of the French Revo- 
lution, 244 

Of the National Assembly, . 244 
Progress of the Revolution, . 245 
Trial and Execution of 

Louis XVI., . . .246 
Triumph of Infidelity, . . 247 
Of the Directory and Na- 
poleon Bonaparte, . . 247 
Bonaparte the First Consul 

and Emperor, . . . 248 
Battle of Austerlitz, . . 249 



Other victories of Napoleon, . 249 
Napoleon's Campaign in 

Russia, . , . 250 

Defeat of Napoleon by the 

Allies, . . . .251 

Napoleon's Return from Elba, 251 
Battle of Waterloo, . . 252 
War between the United 

States and Tripoli, . . 252 
War between the United 

States and Great Britain, . 253 
Progress of the War in 1812, . 253 
The War in 1813, . . ,254 
The War in 1814, . . .255 
Battle of New Orleans, . . 256 
Revolution in Spanish 

America, .... 257 
Of Hayti, . . . .258 
Of Touissant L'Ouverture, . 259 
Progress of the Revolution 

in Hayti, .... 259 
Of Brazil and Portugal, . . 260 
Revolution in Greece, . . 261 
Massacre at Scio, . . . 262 
Progress of the War, . . 262 
Battle of Navarino, . . 263 
French Revolution of 1830, . 264 
Progress of the Revolution, . 264 
Accession of Louis Philippe 

to the Throne, . . .266 
Revolution in Belgium, . . 266 
Revolution in Poland, . . 267 
Proiiress of the Revolution, . 267 

Of India 268 

British East India Company, . 269 

Of Chma 269 

Biographical Sketches, . 27J 



CONTENTS. 



RECENT EVENTS. 



y 



Page. 
Condition of France in 1847, 271 
French Revolution of 1848, 271 
Louis Napoleon, President 

and Emperor, . 272 

The Roman Republic, . 272 

Hungarian Revolution, . 273 
Subjugation of the Hunga- 
rians, . . . .273 
Origin of the Crimean War, 274 
Allied movements against 

Russia, . . . .275 
Battles of the Crimea, . 275 
Capture of the Malakhoff 

and Fall of Sebastopol, . 276 
Of Texas, . . . .276 
War with Mexico, . . 277 
Operations of Gen, Scott, . 278 
Capture of Mexico, . . 279 
War in British India, 279 

Progress of the war in India, 280 
Causes of the SecessionWar, 281 
Commencement of the War, 282 
Uprising of the People, . 282 
Battle of Bull Run, . . 283 
Capture of Hilton Head, 
South Carolina, . . 283 



Capture of Forts Henry and 

Donelson^ . . . 284 

The Merrimac and Monitor, 285 ' 
Burnside's Expedition, . 286 
Battle of Shiloh, or Pitts- 
burg Landing, . . 286 
Capture of New Orleans, . 287 

Gen. McClellan Mititary 

Operations, &c. . . 288 
Battle of Antietam, . . 289 
Proclamation of Emancipa- 
tion, 289 

Battle of Gettysburg, . 290 

Capture of Vicksburg, . 291 
Operations near Chattanoo- 
ga, Tenn., . . .291 
Sherman's March through 

Georgia, . . . .292 
Capture of Fort Fisher, . 293 
Capture of Richmond, . 294 
Surrender of Lee's Army, . 296 
Assassination of President 

Lincoln, . . . .295 
Biographical Sketched, . 297 



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^'Pictorial History of the World" on an entirely original plan. 
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period, from the creation of Adam and Eve, to the Flood. The 
four cuts next in order are illustrative of the four great Mon- 
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or the reign of the Messiah for a thousand years. Isa. xi., 
Rev. XX. 

This sheet, or chart, will, it is believed, be found very useful 
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ANCIENT HISTORY. 



PERIOD I. 

FROM THE CREATION TO THE DEATH OF MOSES. 
(2553 YEARS.) 




Map, showing where the Earth was first peopled. 

Section 1. Of History. History is a relation of past 
events. It is usually divided into sacred and projane, 
ajicient and modern. Sacred history is that which is con- 
tained in the Old and New Testaments ; profane is that 
which is found in other historical records of past ages 
Ancient history extends from the creation to the birth of 
Christ ; modern, from the birth of Christ to the preseni 
time. 
■2. Creation. The only true account we have of the 

Questions. Section 1. What is history 1 How is history 
divided 1 What is sacred history ] What is profane history 1 
How far does ancient history extend ? How far modem ^ 
2 



14 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

creation of the world, and of man, is given by Moses 
in the book of Genesis. According to the Hebrew com- 
putation, man was created 4004 years before the coming 
of Christ. Our first parents were placed in the garden 
of Eden, in a state of innocence and happiness. This 
place, also called Paradise, is supposed to have been 
situated somewhere about the head waters of the Eu- 
phrates, a river in Asia. 

3. Fall of Man. Our first parents, Adam and Eve, 
being tempted or persuaded by the devil, fell from their 
state of happiness, by disobeying their Creator. Having 
departed from duty, man lost the favor of God, and was 
driven out of Paradise. Sin, thus introduced into the 
world, is the origin of the miseries of mankind. Cain, 
the first-born of Adam and Eve, murdered his brother, 
Abel ; and before the flood, we are informed that the 
wickedness of man was great, and the earth was filled 
with violence. 

4. The Deluge or Flood. After mankind had multi- 
plied in the earth, they became so extremely wicked, 
that their Maker determined to destroy the whole race 
by a flood, except Noah and his family. Noah, being 
warned of God, prepared an ark, or vessel, which was 
more than 480 feet in length, 81 in breadth, and 41 in 
height, and was most wisely formed to answer the pur- 
pose for which it was designed. In 1656 years from 
the creation, the fountains of the deep were broken up, 
the flood covered the earth, and every creature without 
the ark perished. Noah and his companions continued 

2. Where do we find an authentic account of the creation? 
By whom given 1 How long before Christ, was man created ^ 
Where were our first parents placed 1 Where is it supposed 
that Paradise was situated \ 

3. How did our first parents fall from a state of happiness ? 
What followed their departure from duty 1 What is the origin 
of the miseries of mankind ] What of Cain ] What of n^ 
before the flood ? " 

4. Why were mankind destroyed by a flood ? How was 
Noah saved ? Describe the ark. How long did the ark 
float, and where did it rest? Is there proof of the deluge 1 
Any traditions respecting it 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 15 

in the ark one year and ten days. The ark floated on 
the water 150 days, and on the falUng of the waters, 
rested on Mount Ararat. 'J'he scripture account of the 
deluge is proved to be true, by the appearance of the 
earth in many places ; and traditions respecting this 
great event have been handed down among many nations. 

5. Division of the Earth among the sons of Noah. 
Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, from 
whom the earth was re-peopled after the flood. Shem 
and his posterity went forth into Eastern and Southern 
Asia: of this family are the Chaldeans, Syrians, and 
Arabians. The descendants of Ham peopled Egypt, and 
other parts of Africa. From Japheth descended the 
inhabitants of Northern Asia, and all the nations of 
Europe. 

6. Building of the Tower of Babel. About one hun- 
dred years after the deluge, the descendants of Noah 
collected themselves on the plain of Shinar, for the 
purpose of building a city, and a tower of very great 
height, that ihey might acquire renown, and prevent 
their dispersion. God, however, having determined to 
form mankind into difl^erent nations, prevented their de- 
sign by confounding their language, so that they were 
compelled to abandon their project, and disperse them- 
selves abroad in the earth. The city which they at- 
tempted to build, was called Babel, or Confusion. 

7. Assyria and Babylon. The name of Assyria ap- 
pears to have been derived from Ashur, the son ol 
Shem, who is supposed to have founded Nineveh, the 
chief city of Assyria. Nimrod, a grandson of Ham, is 
said to have founded Babylon, the capital of Babylonia, 

5. What were the names of the sons of Noah 1 Where 
did Shem go, and who were his posterity 1 By whom was 
Egypt and other parts of A frica peopled ] Who are the de- 
scendants of Japheth 1 

t. When did men begin to build the tower of Babel 1 
ere, and for what purpose, did they build 1 How was the 
building prevented 1 

7. From whom was the name Assyria derived 1 WTio 
founded Nineveh ? Who founded Babylon ? What is said o\ 



16 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

about 150 years after the deluge. He is supposed to be 
the same with Behis, who was afterwards worshiped 
as a god. Nineveh and Babylon were perhaps the most 
magnificent cities in the world. It is stated that Se- 
miramis, a queen of Babylon, employed two millions of 
men in enlarging and adorning this city. It appears 
that Babylonia and Assyria formed but one empire. 
Babylon was at first the capital, then Nineveh, then 
Babylon, till the conquest of the empire by Cyrus. 

8. Kingdom, of Egypt. The Mosaic writings re})rf 
sent Egypt, about 450 years after the ilood, as a wt*i 
regulated kingdom. The great fertility of the soil <> 
the banks of the Nile, it is supposed, caused Egyj)t ' 
become populous and civilized at an early period. A- 
cordingly Egypt was the seat of arts and lear tin 
while Greece and Italy were in a barbarous state i 
claims the honor of inventing the art of writirjg, and ba- 
been styled "the cradle of the sciences." Mcnr.s, c 
Misraim, the son of Ham, is supposed to have hec. 
the first monarch of the Egyptians, about 160 year 
after the deluge. 

9. Government and Laws. The government of Egypi 
was a hereditary monarchy.* The king had the chiel 
regulation of all matters relating to the worship of the 
gods, and the priests were considered as his deputies, 
and filled all the offices of state. In order to prevent 
the evils of borrowing, the borrower had to pledije the 
embalmed body of his father, and it was regarded impi- 
ous and infamous not to redeem it ; and if he died with- 

Nimrod 1 What of Nineveh and Babylon 1 What of Se- 
miramis ? What of Babylon and Assyria ? 

8. How do the Mosaic writings represent Egypt ] What 
is supposed to he the cause of its early settlement 1 What is 
said of Egypt I What invention does i claim the honor of? 
Who is supposed to have been the first monarch ? 

9. What was the form of the government of Egyjt! 
What did the king regulate 1 How were the evils of borrow- 
ing prevented 1 After persons died, what was done respect- 
ing their conduct 1 

* A goveriwnent descending from father to son, or other relative 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 17 

out, having' performed this duty, he was deprived of the 
customary funeral honors. All persons, immediately 
after death, had their conduct examined ; even kings 
vv^ere not excepted. If they had been virtuous, their 
bodies were embalmed, and laid in the tomb with vari- 
ous marks of honor : if their lives had been vicious, or 
if they had died in debt, they were left unburied, and sup- 
posed to have been deprived of future happiness. 



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Egyptian Mummies placed at a Feast. 

10. Embalming the Dead. The ancient Egyptians 
embalmed the bodies of their relatives with the greatest 
care. These bodies, now called mummies, embalmed 
more than 3000 years ago, and perhaps before Moses 
was born, are now found in Egypt in good preservation. 
The body is filled with drugs and spices, closely wrap- 
ped over with many folds of linen, and inclosed in a cof- 
fin, the lid of which is covered with paintings and hie- 
roglyphics, relating, it is supposed, to the character of 
the deceased. Many of these coffins are found in tombs 
cut into solid rocks. Many of the Egyptians kept the 
bodies of their ancestors in their houses, preserved in 

10. What are mummies ] How old are they supposed to be 1 
In what state are they found ] What did the Egyptians do 
with the embalmed bodies of their ancestors \ 
2* 



18 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

such perfection, that they had very much the appear 
ance of life. On feast-days, and on other occasions, 
the dead bodies of their friends were brought out, and 
placed at the table, among the living. 

11. Religion of the Egyptians. Though the Egyp- 
tians were advanced in civilization, yet they were low 
and degraded in their religious opinions. Their two 
principal gods were Osiris and Isis, which are supposed 
to be the sun and the moon. Besides these, they wor- 
shiped the ox, the dog, the cat, the crocodile, the ibis, 
or stork, &c. If any person killed one of these animals, 
he was punished with death. In one instance, a city 
of Egypt being besieged, the invaders placed m front of 
their army a large number of dogs, cats, and other ani- 
mals held sacred by the Egyptians, who, not daring to 
injure their deities, suffered their enemies to come into 
their city without opposition. The bull Apis had a 
splendid temple erected to him : great honors were paid 
him while living, and still greater after his death. The 
golden calf, set up by the Israelites near Mount Sinai, 
appears to have been an imitation of the god Apis. 

12. Egyptian Antiquities. Egypt abounds with the 
monuments and remains of antiquity. The pyramids, 
one of which is 500 feet high, are the most astonishing 
monuments of human labor. It is supposed, and not 
without reason, that the Israelites, during their slavery in 
Egypt, were employed in making these enormous piles. 
The remains of the artificial lake Maoris, the catacombs, 
those vast places for the burial of the dead, have been 
the wonder of ancient and modern times. The ruins of 
Thebes, a city in Upper Egypt, supposed to have been 

11. What is said of the religion of the Egyptians'? The 
names of the principal gods I What other objects did they wor- 
ship 1 Relate the manner in which one of their cities was 
taken. What is said of the bull Apis ? What of the golden calf 
of the Israelites'? 

12. Of what height is one of the pyramids of Egypt? What 
people are supposed to have been employed in making them 1 
What is said of the catacombs ? Where is Thebes'? What ii 
said of its ruins '? Of its history? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 

laid in desolation more than 3000 years ago, is viewed 
with astonishment. Almost the whole extent of eight 
miles, along the river Nile, is covered with magnificent 
portals, obelisks, covered with sculpture, forests of col- 
umns, and long avenues of statues of a gigantic size. 
One of its temples is a mile and a half in circumference. 
Its history is recorded only by uncertain tradition and 
poetry, which might be suspected fabulous, did not such 
mighty witnesses to their truth remain. 

13. Founding of the Hebrew or Jewish nation. About 
417 years after the flood, mankind appear to have lost, 
in a great measure, the knowledge and worship of the 
true God. Abraham, a descendant of Shem, was born 
in Chaldea, and in the midst of an idolatrous people, re- 
tained the knowledge of the true religion. By the di- 
vine direction, he removed into Canaan, which was 
appointed to be the residence of his posterity. To Abra- 
ham, God committed the true religion, and formed of his 
family a peculiar pieople, to whom his will was revealed, 
and from whom the Messiah, or Saviour, was to proceed. 
Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, had twelve sons, who 
were the heads of the twelve tribes of Israel. 

14. Bondage of the Hebrews in Egypt. Joseph, one 
of the twelve sons of Jacob, or Israel, having displeased 
his brethren, was sold by them to a company of mer- 
chants, who took him into Egypt. Here, after various 
trials and changes, he became, (under Pharaoh) lord 
over Egypt. There being a sore famine in the land of 
Canaan, Joseph invited his father and brethren into the 
land of Egypt, where they increased rapidly in numbers. 
After the death of Joseph, the Israelites had become so 
numerous and powerful, that they began to be an object 
of fear to the Egyptians. In order to prevent their pros- 

13. What was the state of mankind after the flood 1 Who 
was Abraham 1 Where born ? What is said of him ? Where 
did he remove ? What is said of his family ] What of Jacob 
and his sons 1 

14 Who was Joseph 1 What is said of him"? How came 
the Israelites into E?ypt '^ What is said of the Israelites after 
the death of Joseph 1 What did the Egyptians do to pre^en 
their increase ? Did they succeed 1 



20 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

perity and increase, task-masters were set o\ er them, 
who made their lives miserable with hard bondage, and 
all their male children were ordered to be destroyed at 
their birth. It is stated by Moses, the sacred historian, 
that the more they were afflicted, the more they multi- 
plied and grew, 

15. OfthePhcenicians. The Phoenicians were among 
the earliest civilized nations in the world. They are 
called Canaanites in the scriptures, from their living in 
the land of Canaan. Inhabiting a sterile country, on the 
borders of the Mediterranean sea, they turned their at- 
tention to commerce, and were a commercial people in 
the time of Abraham. Tyre and Sidon, their principal 
cities, were the most ancient of any we read of in history, 
and were, in early ages, the greaufest seats of commerce 
in the world. The Phcenicians colonized various pla- 
ces bordering on the Mediterranean sea, and its islands, 
at an early period. They are said to have invented 
glass, purple, and coinage. The invention of letters 
has also been ascribed to them, as well as to the Egyp- 
tians ; and Cadmus^ a Phoenician, is said to have first 
carried letters into Greece. 

16. Colonization of Greece. Civilization appears to 
have been introduced into Greece by a colony of Phoe- 
nicians, who founded the kingdom of Argos, 490 years 
from the deluge, and 1857 before the Christian era. 
Greece was called, by the natives, Hellas, and the in- 
habitants, Hellenes. They were extremely barbarous, 
and they wandered in the woods, without law or gov- 
ernment, having but little intercourse with each other. 
It is said they were ignorant of the use of fire, lived on 
acorns, berries, and raw ilesh, and clothed themselves 

15. What were the Phosnicians called in the scriptures 1 
Why were they a commercial people ? What is said of Tyre 
and Sidon ^ Where did the PhcRnicians have colonies? What 
are they said to have invented ? What is said of Cadmus'? 

16. By whom was civilization introduced into Greece "? At 
what time was the kingdom of Argos founded 1 What was 
Greece called by the natives 1 What is said of the ancient in- 
habitants'! On what did they live, and how were they clothed'' 
When were Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, founded ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 

with the skins of wild beasts. Athens^ Sparta^ and 
Thebes, were founded about 800 years after the deluge, 
and fifteen centuries before Christ. 

17. Grecian States or Kingdoms. The most cele- 
brated states or republics of Greece were, Athens 
Sparta, and Thebes: the two leading states were Athens 
and Sparta. Athens, the capital of Attica, was founded 
by a colony from Egypt. It was the most celebrated' 
city in Greece, being distinguished as the seat of learn- 
ing and the arts. It was also celebrated for its com- 
merce, wealth, and magniiicence, and was the birth-place 
of many illustrious men. The Spartans became distiii- 
guished for military valor and discipline, their singular 
laws and institutions making them a nation of soldiers. 
Thebes was founded by Cadmus, the Phoenician. Very 
Uttle is known respecting its early history ; but in after 
times, it rose from obscurity, and became celebrated, 
while Athens and Sparta were in a state of decline. 

18. Return of the Hebrews to Canaan. The Hebrews 
or Israelites, having remained in Egypt 21 5 years, were, 
by the direction of God. assembled under Moses, their 
leader, and commanded to leave the country. By a 
miracle they passed through the Red sea, and the 
Eg^'ptian army, in pursuing them, were all drowned. 
Although God continually performed miracles before the 
Israelites, to supply their wants, yet they murmured and 
rebelled against him. For this, the nation was compel- 
led to wander forti/ years between Egypt and Canaan, 
and the rebellious generation died in the wilderness. 

17. What were the most celebrated states of Greece'? 
Which was the most celebrated city in Greece 1 What is said 
of Athens 1 For what were the Spartans distinguished 1 
What is said of Thebes? 

18. How long did the Hebrews remain in Egypt 1 In what 
manner did they leave Egypt? Why were they compelled to 
wander in the wilderness? How long? Where did the Is- 
raelites receive the divine law ? From whom did they receive 
it? What was the supposed number of the lsraeUt.es at this 
time? In what manner did this multitude pass through the 
wilderness ? What became of Moses I Who was his suc- 
cessor ! 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

While at Mount Sinai, the Israelites received the divine 
law, and their national institutions from God himself, 
by the hand of Moses. At this time, it is supposed, 
they were three millions in number. This vast multi- 
tude were formed into a regular body, and the utmost 
order was observed in their marches and encampments. 
Moses, having arrived m sight of Canaan, died on Mount 
Nebo, and Joshua, his successor, conducted the people 
into the promised land. 

19. The Decalogue, or Ten Commandments. The ten 
commandments given to Moses on Mount Sinai, are 
the most ancient code of laws now in existence. It is 
a complete summary of all the duties which mankind 
owe to God and each other ; it enforces the observance 
of these duties by the powerful motives of gratitude, 
hope and fear. By it, man is directed to adore and love 
the true God, the Author of all good ; it commands him 
to reverence his holy name, and to observe stated times 
for his worship. Four of these commands, 1, Thou 
shall not kill ; 2, Thou shalt not commit adultery ; 3. 
Thou shalt not steal; 4. Thou shalt not bear false wit- 
ness, have formed the basis of all criminal law in all 
civilized nations. The concluding commandment is 
directed against selfishness, the principal source of all 
crime. 

19. What is said respecting the Decalogue < r ten commaml- 
m^nts 1 What four of them form the basis (f criuunal law '' 
VV hat is said respecting the tenth 1 



PERIOD II. 



FEOM THE DEATH OF MOSES TO THE FOU/IBING OK ROME 
(700 YEARS.) 




iSRdEL 
"Jerusalem. 



Map showing places mentioned in Period II. 

20. The Siege of Troy. The account of the Trojan 
war is derived principally from the Iliad, a poem by- 
Homer, the great poet of antiquity. Although there is 
much which is fabulous in the poem, yet the main facts 
are believed to be correctly stated. The war originated 
in the following manner : Helen, the most beautiful wo- 
man of her age, ran away from her husband, the king of 
Sparta, with Paris, the son of the king of Troy, who 
came to Sparta on a visit. The Greeks united under 
Agamemnon, Achilles^ and others, and sent a fleet of 
1,200 open vessels, which conveyed an army of 100,000 
men to the Trojan coast, to avenge the outrage. The 

20. From what is the history of the Trojan war derived ? 
How did the war originate 1 Who were the Greek and Trojan 
eommanders 1 How long was Troy besieged % How taken 1 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Trojans, commanded by Hector, Eneas, and otheis, sus- 
tained a siege of ten years, when the city ^vas e.itered 
by storm, or stratagem, -.and burnt to the ground. The 
poets relate that the Greeks made a large wooden horse, 
which they secretly filled with armed men ; the Trojans 
having taken possession, they drew it in triumph into 
the city. In the night the Greeks came out, opened 
the gates to their companions, who rushed in and made 
themselves masters of the city. 

21. Grecian Games. The Greeks had four solemn 
games, called the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and 
the Isthmian. They consisted of contests of skill in 
wrestling, boxing, running, leaping, and such exercises. 
There were also horse and chariot races ; contentions 
of skill between poets, musicians, orators, philosophers, 
and artists. These games had a great political effect 
in promoting national union, in extending the love of 
glory, and training the youth to martial exercises. They 
cherished at once a spirit of heroism and superstition, 
which led to great and hazardous enterprises. The 
Olympic games were instituted 1222 years before Christ, 
by Hercules, They were not, however, regularly cel- 
ebrated till 775 years before the Christian era. From 
this period the Olympiads constitute an epoch in profane 
history, to which all important events are referred. 

22. Religion of the Greeks. The Greeks, and after- 
wards the Romans, worshiped s^reat numbers of gods 
and demi-gods, which they divided into a number of 
classes. The celestial deities were Jupiter, Apollo, 
Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Ve- 
nus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. Jupiter was considered 

21. What were the solemn games of the Greeks called ? 
What did they consist of? What effect did these games have ? 
When were the Olympic games instituted? At vi-hat time 
were they regularly celebrated? What is said of them? 

22. What did the Greeks and Romans worship? Who 
were their celestial deities ? What is said of Jupiter ? Apollo ? 
Mars? Mercury 1 Bacchus? Vulcan? Minerva? Venus? 
What is said of Neptune ? The Syrens 1 Cupid ? The Nine 
Muses ? What of deities of a lower order ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 25 

the father of gods and men ; Apollo, the god of music 
and poetry ; Mars, of war ; Mercury, represented with 
winged feet, was the messenger of the gods ; Bacchus 
was the god of wine ; Vulcan was patron of those who 
worked in metals, and is represented as forging thunder- 
bolts for Jupiter ; Minerca was the goddess of wisdom ; 
Venus, of love and beauty. These divinities were sup- 
posed to possess the. passions and infirmities of man- 
kind ; and even Jupiter, their supreme god, was repre- 
sented as having recourse to the most unworthy artifices 
to gratify the basest passions. 

Among the deities of a lower order, was Neptune, 
who reigned over the sea ; the Syrens, who were said 
to have the faces of women, and the lower part of their 
bodies like fish, and by their melodious voices allured 
mariners to destruction. Cupid was the god of love ; 
the Nine Muses, who presided over the liberal arts ; 
they also had infernal deities, and gods, and goddesses, 
of the woods, streams, winds, &c. Besides their own 
they often adopted the gods of other nations. 

23. Worship of the Gods. The worship of the Gre- 
cian divinities was conducted by priests dressed in costly 
robes, who offered sacrifices of animals, fruits, per- 
fumes, and sometimes human victims. These sacrifices 
were sometimes accompanied with prayers, music, and 
dancing. Various degrees of worship were offered to 
the gods, and the souls of departed heroes. The tem- 
ples dedicated to the gods, were very numerous and 
splendid. Their festivals were observed with every 
circumstance of pomp and splendor, to charm the eye, 
and please the imagination. The temples were attend- 
ed by the idle and vicious, and the most disgraceful 
licentiousness was often allowed. -Their philosophers 
appear to have been in doubt respecting a future state 
of existence ; their poets, however, inculcated a belief 
in Tartarus, or Hell, and in Elysium, or Paradise. 

23. How was the Grecian worship conducted'? What is 
said of their festivals 1 Their temples 1 Their philosophers ? 
What belief did their poets inculcate 1 
3 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Priestess of the Delphic Oracle. 

24. Grecian Oracles. The oracles were certain tem- 
ples, where it is said future events were made known to 
those who sought to know the will of the gods, by means 
of priests and priestesses, who were supposed to be in- 
spired by their deities with the power of foretelling 
what was to come. They obtained such credit among 
the Greeks, that nothing of importance was undertaken 
without first consulting the gods. There were several 
hundred of these oracles in different parts of Greece, 
but the most celebrated were those of Apollo, at Delphi, 
and Delos, and the oracle of Jupiter, at Doclona. The 
Delphic oracle was on Mount Parnassus, the supposed 
residence of the god Apollo. Here the priestess called 
Pythia, being placed over a fissure from which proceed- 
ed a sulphurous vapor, began to foam at the mouth, tore 
her hair and flesh, ^and the incoherent words uttered 
during her frenzy, were put in verse, and delivered as 
he answer of the oracle. At Dodona, the priestess 
oretold future events by observing attentively the mur- 

24. What were the oracles 1 Where were the most cele- 
brated oracles 1 What is said of the priestess, or Pythia ? 
Of the priestess at Dodona 1 What kind of answers did the 
oracles give'^ 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 27 

rniir of the sacred oaks, the voice of falling water, &c. 
The answers by these oracles were generally given in 
such obscure language, that they would admit of differ- 
ent interpretations. 

25. Divination, or foretelling of future events. The 
Greeks also endeavored to obtain a knowledge of future 
events by dreams, and by observing omens. They were 
very superstitious in this respect ; almost every acci- 
dent, or appearance of nature, was believed to be an 
omen of good or evil. For the purpose of obtaining 
prophetic dreams, they fasted, clothed themselves ir 
white, and underwent various ceremonies. In the sacri 
fees, when the beast was dragged by force to the altar 
when it kicked, or bellowed, or was long in dying, it 
was ominous of evil ; if otherwise, the gods were 
deemed propitious. The entrails of beasts were ex- 
amined in order to gain a knowledge of the future ; the 
Grecian augurs, clothed in white, with a crown of gold 
upon their heads, observed the flight of birds for the 
same purpose. Toads were accounted lucky omens ; 
serpents, unlucky ; a hare, in time of war, signified de- 
feat and flight. Comets and eclipses portended evil, and 
caused much alarm. 

26. The Court of Areopagus. This far-famed court 
of justice was held in Athens, on Mars' Hill, and so up- 
right and impartial were its decisions, that they were 
considered as standards of wisdom and humanity. The 
Areopagites, or judges, were guardians of education and 
manners, and took cognizance of crimes, abuses, and 
matters relating to religion and government. They 
always heard causes, and passed sentences in the night, 
or in the dark, so that they might not be led to favor 
either party on account of their outward appearance. 

25. How did the Greeks seek a knowledge of future events 1 
What is said of prophetic dreams 1 Of sacrifices ? What of 
augurs "? Lucky and unlucky omens 1 

26. What is said of the court of the Areopagus'? Of the 
Areopagites 1 When did they hear causes? Why in the 
dark 1 Why was not oratory or fine speaking allowed 1 What 
was done when the votes of the judges were equally divided ? 



28 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

No oratory, or fine speaking, was allowed, lest it should 
corrupt their judgment, and in this august tribunal nothing 
was attended to but truth alone. If the votes were 
equally divided, Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was 
supposed to add her vote or suffrage, and always to in- 
cline on the side of mercy. 

27. The Israelites. Alter the death of Moses and 
Joshua, the Israelites were under the direction of leaders 
called Judges, during the space of about 350 years. 
The people, dissatisfied with the immediate government 
of God, desired a king, in order to be like the nations 
around them. About 1 1 00 years before Christ, Saul 
was appointed their sovereign. He was a warlike 
prince, but was finally, with his three sons, killed on 
Mount Gilboa. He was succeeded by David, who was 
distinguished for his skill in war, music, and poetry. 
He restored the purity of the Hebrew worship, conquer- 
ed the enemies of his country, and commenced building 
Jerusalem, which afterwards was the royal residence. 
He made an alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, the 
capital of Phoenicia, then a powerful and wealthy king- 
dom, and collected materials for building the magnifi- 
cent temple of Solomon. 

28. The Reign of Solomon. When Solomon suc- 
ceeded to the throne of his father, David, the Israelitish 
nation had arrived to its height of splendor and power. 
The dedication of Solomon's Temple, at Jerusalem, took 
place one thousand and four years before Christ. The 
building of this structure was completed in seven years. 
An immense amount of gold was used in its construc- 
tion, and it was probably the most superb and costly 
edifice the world ever saw. The reign of Solomon was 
attended with peace, prosperity, and abundance ; but to- 

27. After the death of Moses and Joshua, who were the 
leaders of the Israelites ? Why did they desire a king 1 
What is said of Saul ^ Who was his successor! What is 
said of David T With whom did he make an alliance 1 

28. Who succeeded David? What is said of Solomon's 
Temple T What is said of the reign of Solomon 1 What ol 
the ten tribes ^ What tribes formed the kingdom of Judah 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 29 

wards the close of his life he became luxurious and ef- 
feminate, and by the sin of idolatry brought dishonor 
and distress upon the nation. About thirty years after 
the dedication of the temple, ten tribes of the Israelites 
revolted from Rehoboam,the son of Solomon, and foimed 
a separate kingdom, which was called the Kingdom of 
Israel; the tribes of Judah and Benjamin continued 
their allegiance to Rehoboam, and formed the Kingdom 
of Judah. 

29 Homcr.^ the Grecian Poet. Homer, the great poet 
of antiquity, is supposed to have lived in Greece about 
the time of Solomon. He is supposed to have been a 
wandering minstrel, and in that capacity composed in 
detached parts these sublime stories, which in 367 years 
afterwards were collected into two poems, the Iliad, 
which is a description of the Trojan war, and the Odys- 
sey, in which is described the return of Ulysses from 
the siege of Troy. These poems, which have been the 
admiration of all succeeding ages, are distinguished for 
their minute description of ancient manners, their fire, 
sublimity, and eloquence, which hardly have been 
equalled by any succeeding poet. The ancients had 
such a veneration of Homer, that they raised temples 
and statues to his memory, and even offered sacrifices 
and worshiped him as a god. 

30. Republic of Sparta. Lacedemon, or Sparta, a 
weak and distracted state, arose to great power and dis- 
tinction among the Grecian states, by the introduction 
of the institutions of Lycurgus. This lawgiver gave 
most of his attention to the regulation of manners ; one 
of the leading principles which governed his system, 
was that " Luxury is the bane of society." His regu- 
lations appear to have had no other end than to form a 
nation of soldiers. All the servile offices were perform- 
ed by the Helots, or slaves, whonx they treated with se- 

29. At what time is Homer supposed to have lived? 
What is said of him ? What is said of the Iliad and Odyssey ? 
For what are these poems distinguished 1 

30. How did Sparta become powerful ] What was one of 
the leading principles of his system 1 What appeared to be 

3* 



30 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

verity, and often killed for sport. Lycurgus having 
bound his countrymen by an oath to observe his laws 
till he returned, he left Sparta, it is said, with the in- 
tention of never returning, and in order to give sanction 
and durability to his laws, he starved himself to death 
The Spartans observed his laws for 500 years, during 
which time they continued a powerful people. 

31. Laws of Lycurgus. 1/ycurgus made an equal di- 
vision of land among the people, and to prevent their 
becoming rich by commerce, he destroyed the value of 
gold and silver, and ordered all money to be made of 
iron. This iron money was of no value in any other 
state, and even by the Spartans themselves, it was des- 
pised. It was ordained that all the citizens should eat 
at the public tables, where the food was of the plainest 
kind, and the conversation grave and instructive. 
Every man was obliged to send his provisions to the 
common stock once a month. The Spartan children 
were considered as belonging to the state, and at the 
age of seven years were taken from their parents and 
put into classes for a public education. They were 
taught the duties of religion, obedience to the laws, re- 
spect for parents, contempt of danger and hardship, and 
above all, the love of glory and of their country. Al- 
though there was much which is worthy of praise, yet 
there were some evils in their institutions. The Spar- 
tan women were taught to be bold and immodest ; the 
youth were taught to subdue the feelings of kindness 
and humanity, and in some instances theft was allowed. 

32. Republic of Athens. Athens was at the first 
governed by kings. A war having been waged against 
Athens, it was declared by an oracle, that the nation 
whose king was first killed in battle, should be victori- 
ous. Codrus, disguising himself, went into the camp 

the object of his regulations 1 What is said of the Helots, or 
slaves? What became of Lycurgus"? How long did the 
Spartans Observe his laws 1 

31. How did Lycurgus prevent the people from becoming 
richl Where did the citizens take their food ? What is said 
of their children? What v/ere they taught'' What were 
some of the evils of the Spartan institutions'' 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 31 

of the enemy and sacrificed his life for the good of hi. 
country. Tlie Athenians were the conquerors ; and to 
honor the memory of Codrus, they decreed that no man 
was fit to reign after him, and therefore changed the 
government by appointing nine persons as magistrates, 
who were styled Archons. This took place 1070 
years before Christ. The manners of the Athenians 
formed strong contrast to those of the Spartans. In 
Athens the arts were highly esteemed ; in Sparta they 
were despised. In Athens peace was the natural state 
of the republic, while war seemed to be the great busi- 
ness of life with the Spartans. The Athenian was luxu- 
rious, and the Spartan frugal ; they were, however, 
equally jealous of their liberty, and equally brave in 
war. 

33. Draco and Solon. These celebrated lawgivers 
of Athens, Draco and Solon, flourished about six hun- 
dred years before the Christian era. Draco prepared 
the first written code of laws which the Athenians pos- 
sessed. His laws, on account of their severity, are 
said to have been written in blood. By them idleness 
was punished with as much severity as murder, and 
death was the penalty of both. Such was the inhu- 
manity of these laws, that it prevented their being fully 
executed. Solon, one of the " seven wise men of Greece," 
in one of his first acts repealed the laws of Draco. The 
general character of his laws was mild, equitable, and 
adapted to the prevailing habits of the people. The fa- 
ther who did not lea( ti his son a trade, could not claim 
any support from him in his old age. It was forbidden 
to use ill language in public. The proposer of a law, 
which was found on experience to be. impolitic, was lia- 
ble to punishment. Those persons who on questions 

32- Hovi^ was Athens first governed 1 What is said of 
Codrus 1 How was the government changed 1 What was 
the difference between the Athenians and Spartans 1 

33. Who were the lawgivers of Athens 1 At what time 
did they flourish? What is said of the laws of Draco 1 
Who was Solon? What was the general character of his 
laws 1 Mention some of them. What was done to those 
who would not declare their sentiments ] 



32 A?JCIENT HISTORY. 

of importance to the country, refused to declare their 
sentiments till they could see which was the strongest 
party, were declared infamous, condemned to banish- 
ment, and their property confiscated. 

34. Founding of Carthage. Carthage, in Africa, is 
said to have been founded upwards of 869 years be- 
fore the Christian era, and about 100 before the build- 
ing of Rome. It existed more than seven hundred 
years. It is said to have been founded by Dido, a prin- 
cess, with a colony from Tyre. The government at 
first was monarchical, but became afterwards republican, 
and it retained, in a great measure, the laws and man- 
ners of the parent state. Commerce was the principal 
business of the Carthaginians ; and by means of their 
wealth they hired foreign troops, conquered various 
places lying on the borders of the Mediterranean sea, 
and established colonies. Their history was not much 
known till their war with the Romans ; they are gen- 
erally represented as avaricious, and as wanting in in- 
tegrity and honor. During the period of the Cartha- 
ginian, or Punic wars, Carthage, with a population of 
700,000, became one of the most splendid cities in the 
world. It had under its dominion 300 smaller cities, 
in various places bordering on the Mediterranean. ^ 

35. Founding of Rome by Romulus. The early his- 
tory of the Romans, like that of other ancient nations, is 
mixed with fable. The most authentic account we 
have, is, that Rome was founded by Romulus, 752 years 
before the Christian era. The city took its name from 
its founder, and it appears to have been first peopled by 
runaway slaves and criminals. Romulus being king, 
made his new city an asylum for fugitive slaves, and 
by a stratagem at a public festival, his subjects seized 
and carried off the Sabine women for wives. P^or about 
250 years Rome was governed by kings ; afterwards the 
form of government became republican. The Romans 

34. When was Carthage founded 1 By whom 1 What is 
said of its government ? What was their principal business ? 
How is their character generally represented 1 What is said 
of Carthage durini^r the Punic wars'? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 33 

were generally at variance with the tribes around them 
and generally settled their disputes by battles, in which 
they were most always victorious. The citizens of 
Rome were divided into two classes, the Patricians, who 
were the nobility, or higher classes, and the Plebeians 
or common people. Between these two orders many 
broils and dissentions occurred. 

35 What is said of the early history of Rome ? By whom 
founded and at what time ? How was it first peopled ? Wha 

dh^Pd'i ' wf ^^"' ''T%- Howwerethe citizens of Rome 
divided] Who were the Patricians ? Who were Plebeians ' 



PERIOD III. 



raOM THE FOUNDING OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER 
(4:30 YEARS.) 




36, Captivity of the Ten Tribes. The ten tribes of 
Israel existed in a separate kingdom for about 250 years, 
v/hich was called the kingdom of Israel, of which Sa- 
maria was the capital, their kings were idolaters, and 
the nation were sunk in wickedness. In 721 years be- 
fore Christ, Shalmanezer, kir^g of Nineveh, besieged 
Samaria, and after a siege of three years, the city was 
surrendered, and the people carried captives into the 
mountainous regions of the interior of Asia. From this 
period they ceased to exist as an independent nation, and 
we have no authentic history respecting their fate. It 

36. What kingdom did the ten tribes form ? How long did 
it exist 1 What was the capital "? What is said of their kings 
and nations 1 By whom were they carried into captivity, and 
where ] What is said of their fate as a nation ? In the time 
of our Saviour, who were called Samaritans ] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 35 

is supposed by some, that tliey are still existing as a 
distinct people somewhere in Asia. Some few people 
belonging to the tribes remained in Canaan, and were 
intermixed with strangers, and from that mixture sprung 
the motley race, who, in the time of our Saviour, were 
called Samaritans, and held in contempt by the Jews. 

37. Captivity of the Jews in Babijlon. About a cen- 
tury after the captivity of the ten tribes, Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, took Jerusalem by storm,* after a siege 
of twelve months. The city, with the temple built by 
Solomon, was leveled with the dust, 588 years before 
the coming of Christ. Zedekiah, the Jewish king, after 
the murder of his children in his presence, had his eyes 
put out, aad then carried captive to Babylon. All the 
principal persons and the skillful artists of every kind, 
and the sacred treasures of the temple, were likewise 
,aken away, and the country laid waste. The Jews, 
according to the prophecy of Daniel^ one of the captives, 
remained in captivity just seventy years, and were re- 
stored to their country by Cyrus, the conqueror of Bab- 
ylon, who permitted them to rebuild their city and its 
temple. The scripture narrative in the Old Testament, 
ends about 100 years after this period. 

38. Conquest uf Babylon by Cyrus. This celebrated 
city, one of the wonders of the world, was taken by 
Cyrus, the Persian, 538 years before Christ, and by this 
event the Babylonian or Assyrian Empire was ended. 
Cyrus having defeated Belshazzar, the king of Babylon, 
he retreated to his capital, which the Persians imme- 
diately besieged. The city was fortified in such a 
manner, that it seemed impossible to take possession. 
It was, however, taken by a stratagem : a channel was 

37. When did Nebuchadnezzar take Jerusalem ? What is 
said of the siege and temple ^ What of Zedekiah ] How 
long did the Jews remain in captivity"? By whom were they 
restored! At what period does the scripture narrative end? 

38. By whom was Babylon taken ] In what manner 1 
What is said of Belshazzar "? What remarkable appearance? 
What is said of Isaiah ] What of his predictions 1 

* A violent attpmpt in going over walls or through gates. 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

dug to turn the course of the river Euphrates, which 
passed through the city. A great festival was to be 
celebrated in the city, in which the Babylonians were 
accustomed to pass the whole night in drinking and de- 
bauchery. Cyrus, on this night, opened the channel 
to receive the w^ater of the Euphrates, v/hich soon be- 
came dry, and marched his troops in the bed of the river 
into the city. Belshazzar and his nobles, while revel- 
ing with wine, drank from the sacred vessels taken from 
the temple of Jerusalem, were suddenly arrested by the 
appearance of a hand-writing on the wall, warning Bel- 
shazzar of the destruction of his kingdom. The troops 
of Cyrus finding the gates open on the hanks of the 
river, entered the city almost without resistance, and 
slew Belshazzar and his attendants. 

Isaiah, the sacred prophet, many ages before its final 
accomplishment, foretold its utter desolation, in the fol- 
lowing words : " And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, 
the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency, shall he as 
when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall 
never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from 
generation to generation." So completely has this pre- 
diction been fulfilled, that it has been a matter of dispute 
where the city stood. 

39. Persian Empire. There is but little known re- 
specting the early history of the Persians. They rose 
into notice and power by the conquest of Cyrus, who is 
celebrated both in profane and sacred history. Cyrus 
was the son of a Persian nobleman, and married the 
daughter of the king of the Medes, and by this means 
Persia and Media became one kingdom. He conquered 
the Lydians^ made himself master of Sardis, their caj)- 
ital, and took prisoner their king Crasus, so celebrated 
for his vast riches. He conquered Babylon and sub- 
jected the greatest part of Asia Minor, and made him- 
self master of Syria and Arabia. Cyrus was a great 

39. What is said of the early history of the Persians ] What 
is said of Gyrus! Of Persia and Media ] Relate the con- 
quests of Cyrus. How long did the Persian Empire continue I 
How was it ended ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



37 



and virtuous king ; he spent the last part of his life in 
regulating his vast conquests, being beloved not only 
by his own natural subjects, but those of the conquered 
nations. The Persian Empire continued for two hun- 
dred years, when it was ended by the conquests of 
A.lexander the Great. 




Persians Worsfiiping tfie Sun. 



40. Religion of the Persians. The religion of the 
ancient Persians was of great antiquity. Zoroaster was 
the founder of the sect of the Magi, in the eastern world, 
and particularly in Persia. This set adored the sun, 
and paid great veneration to fire ; hence they were called 
fire worshipers. The keeping of the sacred fire was en- 
trusted to the Magi, and it was always carried before 
their kings in all their marches, with the greatest re- 
spect, and it would have been deemed the greatest mis- 
fortune, had it been suffered to go out. In their tenets, 
they believed there were two principles in existence, 
one the cause of all good, the other the cause of all evil, 
and that there is a perpetual struggle between them, 
which will last to the end of the world. The priests of 
the Magi were deeply skilled in astronomy, and all the 
learning of the age in which they lived. They were so 
much superior in knowledge to the rest of mankind, that 
they were thought by the vulgar to be inspired by su- 
pernatural powers. Hence in after ages, those who 

40. Who was Zoroaster T What is said of the Magi 1 What 
was their belief] What is said of the priests of the Magi ^ 
What of Magic and Magicians ? 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

performed any act which seemed to be beyond human 
power, were said to have used Magic, and were called 
Magicians. 

41. Government, and Laws. The government of Per- 
sia was an absolute monarchy ; the will of the monarch 
was law, and his person held sacred. He always ap- 
peared with great pomp and dignity : having at some 
periods a body-guard of 13,000 men, besides another 
guard of 10,000 horsemen, styled the Immortals, their 
number being always the same. The king, like the rest 
of the eastern monarchs, styled himself " The King of 
Kings.^^ The laws of Persia were mild and just, and 
the utmost purity was observed in the administration of 
justice. The ancient Persians bestowed great attention 
to the education of youth. Children at the age of five 
years were put under the care of the Magi for the im- 
provement of their minds, and were at the same time 
trained to every manly exercise. Before they were 
corrupted and weakened by the luxury of later times, 
the Persians were temperate, brave, simple, and virtu- 
ous in their manners. 

42. Implements of War. The ordinary arms of the 
Persian and other eastern nations, were a scimitar, a 
short curved sword, a dagger which hung in a belt on 
the right side ; ^javelin, a short spear pointed with iron, 
five and a half feet in length. Spears, or lances, shields^ 
hows, arrows, and slings, were used. They covered the 
most exposed parts of their bodies, and also their horses, 
with an armor of brass. They often used chariots 
armed with sythes : these had only two wheels, with 
sythes three feet long, placed horizontally into both ends 
){ the axletree ; other sythes were also placed under 
the same axletree, with their edges turned to the ground, 
that they might cut in pieces men and horses, over which 

41. What was the government of Persia 1 What is said oi 
the Persian monarch 1 What of his guard 1 What of the laws 
of Persia ? Of the education of children "? Of the Persian 
manners 1 

42. What were the ordinary arms of the eastern nations ? 
VVhat was a scimitar ? A javelin 1 What is said of their ar- 
mor ^ Of" their chariots'? How drawn and occupied? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 39 

they passed. The chariots were generally drawn by 
four horses abreast, and were occupied by two distin- 
guished v/arriors. When an opportunity occurred, they 
drove furiously into the ranks of the enemy, and did 
horrid execution, 

43. Method of attaching and defending places. The 
first course taken in besieging a place, was to blockade 
It, by building a wall around it. This was to prevent 
succors or provisions being brought in.' In this manner 
they waited till the besieged were reduced by famine ; 
and Ave read of some instances where cities were be- 
sieged for more than ten years. This being very tedious, 
the walls of places were sometimes scaled, by means of 
ladders. In order to prevent this, the walls were often 
built very high, and towers were built at intervals in 
the walls still higher, so that the ladders of the be- 
siegers might not he able to reach the summit. Another 
method of attack was, to build a wooden movable tower, 
still higher than the walls, which was moved against 
them. On the top of these movable towers, a body of 
soldiers was placed, who, with their darts and arrows, 
cleared the walls of the city of its defenders, and thus 
effected an entrance. The ancients also used the hatter- 
ing-ram, a vast beam of timber, with a strong head of 
brass or iron at one end, which was pushed with the 
utmost force against the walls. 

44. War between the Greeks and Persians. The con- 
quest of the Grecian states seems to have been a favorite 
object with the Persians from the time of Cyrus. Theii 
growing power and independent spirit were wounding to 
the pride of the monarchs of Asia. Greece was at this 
time composed of a number of small and independent 
states, jealous of each other, and often engaged in quar- 
rels and hostilities : Athens and Sparta, however, had 
obtained a pre-eminence. The invasion of the Persians 

43. What was the first course in besieging a place? How 
long were cities sometimes besieged T How did they prevent 
the scaling of walls "? What is said of movable towers T O* 
the battering-ram 1 

44. What was a favorite object with the Persians'? Hov- 



40 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

had the effect of uniting them in one common effort for 
the preservation of their liberties, and thus, by awaken- 
ing a national spirit, laid the foundation of their future 
greatness. Darius, the Persian king, sent heralds into 
Greece, and demanded of all the states, " earth and 
iDater,''' the usual token of submission to his government. 
Many of the cities and islands submitted ; but Athens 
and Sparta, instead of offering up " earth and water," 
threw the heralds, one into a well, the other into a ditch, 
and contemptuously bade them take earth and water 
from thence. 

45. Battle of Marathon. The Persian army, having 
approached Athens, encamped on the plains of Mara- 
thon, about ten miles from the city, which they sum- 
moned to surrender. The Athenians, 10,000 heroes, 
under Miltiades, fired with patriotism, marched on to 
Marathon, to oppose ten times their number in the Per- 
sian host. The strength of the Persians consisted much 
in its cavalry : Miltiades, therefore, drew up his little 
army on a narrow plain, where the cavalry could not 
■ict to advantage. The Persian commander, although 
aware of the skillful disj)osition of the Greeks, was too 
confident of the superiority of his numbers, to delay the 
battle. The signal for action being given, the Atheni- 
ans advanced running, and at once engaged the enemy 
in close fight. The battle was fierce and obstinate ; 
but Grecian valor prevailed, and the whole Persian 
army retreated in disorder to their ships. The loss of 
the Persians was more than six thousand men, while 
the Greeks lost but two hundred. This was one of the 
most important battles ever fought in ancient times, and 
on its event seemed to depend the liberty of Greece, 
and the progress of the refinement of mankind. It took 
place 490 years before the Christian era. 

was Greece at this period 1 What was the effect of the Per- 
sian invasion 1 What is said of Darius] How were the Per- 
sian heralds treated by Athens and Sparta? 

45. How many Athenians engaged in the battle of Mara- 
thon 1 How many Persians 1 Describe the order of the bat- 
tle. What was the loss of the Persians 1 The Greeks 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 41 

46. Ingratitude of the Athenians. Miltiades, by this 
nctory, rose to the highest popularity in the republic, 
and was sent with a fleet to expel ihe Persians from the 
Grecian islands. He laid siege to Paros, but being 
dangerously wounded, in attempting to enter the town, 
raised the siege, and was obliged to return to Athens. 
On the accusation of one of the citizens, he was tried 
for treason. Though he was absolved from the capital 
charge, yet he was condemned to pay a fine of fifty 
talents. Being unable to pay this fine, he was thrown 
into prison, where he died of the wouads received in the 
service of his ungrateful country. Even his body was 
not allowed to be buried, until his son Cimon, who was 
very young, had procured the money and paid the fine. 

47. Xerxes^ the Persian. Xerxes, the young mon- 
arch, having succeeded to the throne of Persia, was 
eager to subdue Greece, and avenge the defeat of his 
father. Having spent four years in preparation, he col- 
lected the greatest army the world ever saw. The 
whole number of fighting men in the army and fleet, 
exceeded two millions ; and, including the camp follow- 
ers, the sutlers, slaves, and women, the whole number 
is said to have exceeded Jive millions. The fleet con- 
sisted of 1200 ships of war, and 3000 ships of burthen. 
It is related that Xerxes, having taken a station on an 
eminence, in order to gratify his vanity, by viewing the 
vast assemblage which he had collected, — the earth 
covered with his troops, the sea with his vessels, — is 
said to have shed tears, on the reflection that, in the 
space of one hundred years, not one of the vast multi- 
tude before him would be found alive. 

48. Battle of Thermopyl(B. Landing in Thessaly, 
Xerxes marched without opposition, till he came to 
Thermopyl(E, a narrow pass defended by Leonidas, king 
of Sparta, whom he commanded to deliver up his arms. 

46. What is said of Miltiades 1 How was he treated after 
his return from the siege of Paros 1 

47. What is said of Xerxes ] How many fighting men did 
he have 1 And how many followers 1 What is related of 
Xerxes, on viewing his vast army ] 

A* 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 




Leonidas, with the Spartan Band, at Thermo'pylcE. 

With Spartan brevity, Leonidas replied, " Come and 
take them!''' For two days, the Persians in vain strove 
to force their vv^ay. At length, an unguarded track was 
discovered ; the defence of the pass was of no avail. 
Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, commanded all 
to retire, except three hundred of his countrymen. His 
motive was, to show the Persians what sort of people 
they had to encounter, and to acquire immortal fame, in 
obedience to a law of his country, which forbade its 
soldiers to flee from an enemy. They all fell, to a man, 
after having made dreadful havoc of the enemy. A 
monument was erected on the spot, bearing this noble 
inscription : " Go, stranger^ tell it at Lacedemon, that 
we died here in obedience to her laws!^ 

49. Defeat of the Persians. From Thermopylee the 
Persians came down upon Attica. The inhabitants of 
Athens, after conveying their women and children to the 
islands for security, betook themselves to their fleet, 
and abandoned the city, which was pillaged and burnt 
by the Persians. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting 

48. Who was Leonidas 1 What was his reply to Xerxes'? 
What did Leonidas do, when he foresaw his destruction "? 
W'hat was the inscription on the monument of the Spartans 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 43 

of 380 sail, was attacked by the Persian fleet, consist- 
ing of 1200 ships, in the straits of Salamis. Xerxes, 
from an eminence on the coast, saw the destruction of 
his fleet, and determined to return, with all possible 
speed, to Asia. Leaving Mardonius, with 300,000 
chosen men, to prosecute the war, he retreated towards 
the Hellespont, which he crossed in a small fishing-boat, 
with scarcely a remnant of his followers with him, they 
having died of famine, fatigue, and pestilence. Mar- 
donius was totally defeated at Platcea, 479 years before 
Christ. From this time, the ambitious schemes of 
Xerxes were at an end, and he himself was soon after 
murdered. 

50. War of the Peloponnesus. This civil war among 
the Greeks commenced about 430 years before the 
Christian era, and continued for twenty-seven years. It 
is called the Peloponnesian war, from the peninsula of 
that name, (now iMorea,) in which the southern Gre- 
cian states were situated. It was partly caused by 
Athens, who wished to rule the rest of Greece, and 
partly from the jealousy of Sparta and the other Grecian 
states, who bore with impatience the supremacy of 
Athens. All the Greeks partook in this destructive 
quarrel, and arranged themselves on the side of Sparta 
or of Athens. The Spartans were generally the most 
powerful on the land, the Athenians on the sea. Sparta 
menaced Athens with all her forces, ravaged the coun- 
try, and blockaded the inhabitants whhin their walls. 
A-thens avenged herself by landing her forces at various 
places, and by laying waste the country of her enemies, 
compelling them to fiy to the defense of their own habi- 
tations. Although this contest took place at an era dis- 
tinguished for refinement, philosophy, and the cultiva- 

49. How were the Persians defeated ? What did Xerxes 
do, after the defeat of his fleet "^ 

50. At what time did the Peloponnesian war commence, 
and how long did it continue 1 How did it originate ] Who 
were the most powerful on land ] Who on the sea ? What 
is said of this contest ] 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY 

tion of the arts, yet it was carried on with the utmost 
party rage and savage ferocity. 

51. Defeat of the Athenians. Lysander, one of the 
ablest of the Spartan commanders, having utterly defeat- 
ed the Athenian fleet, reduced Athens to great distress. 
The city was blockaded by land and sea, and the Athe- 
nians, to avoid total destruction, agreed ft) demolish 
their port and all their fortifications. They also agreed 
to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and in future under- 
take no military enterprise, except under the command 
of the Spartans. By these means Lacedemon, or Spar- 
ta, became the leading power in Greece. Lysander, 
after the reduction of Athens, abolished the popular 
government, and in its place, thirty magistrates were 
appointed, whose power was absolute. The magis- 
trates, from their acts of cruelty, were called the " thirty 
tyrantsP In the space of eight months 1500 citizens 
were sacrificed to their avarice, or vengeance, and many 
fled from their country. At length a band of patriots 
attacked, vanquished, and expelled these usurpers, and 
once more established a democratic form of government 

52. War between Sparta and Thebes. While Athens 
and Sparta were visibly declining, the Theban republic 
rose from obscurity. Sparta was jealous of its rising 
greatness : a war between the two states ensued. The 
two armies met at Leucira ; the Spartan forces, consist- 
ing of 25,000 men, were defeated by the Thebans, who 
had only 6,400, but were commanded by Epaminondas^ 
the greatest soldier of his time. In the battle, the 
Spartan king, and 4,000 of his men, were killed ; the 
Theban loss was but 300. The Spartans had never 
before received so severe a wound as this battle. The 
victorious Thebans now overran the territories of Sparta, 
and carried fire and sword to the very suburbs of the 

51. Who defeated the Athenians^ What did the Athenians 
do] W^hat was done after Athens was reduced'? What is 
said of the magistrates 1 

52. By whom were the Spartans defeated ? State the 
number and losses of each army. What is said of the Spar- 
tan territories ] 



ANv^IENT HISTORf. 45 

capital. This country had not been ravaged by a hos- 
tile army for 600 years ; and the boast of the inhabi- 
tants, " that never had the women of Sparta beheld the 
smoke of an enemy's camp,'^ was now done away. 

53. Epaminondas, the Theban General. Epaminon- 
das is considered as one of the greatest characters of 
Greece ; he was distinguished for patriotism, learning, 
military talents, and private virtues. When he returned 
to Thebes, after his victory at Leuctra, he was seized as 
a traitor, for having violated a law of his country, which 
prohibited any citizen retaining the supreme command 
for more than one month. In answer to this he said, 
that he would submit to the law of his country, but he 
wished to have it inscribed on his tomb, " that he suffered 
death for saving his country from ruin" This reproach 
was felt, he was pardoned, and again invested with the 
sovereign command. After a variety of conflicts, the 
combined forces of Sparta and Athens met the The- 
ban army at MantincEa. A severe battle ensued, in 
which the Thebans gained a complete victory. Epami- 
nondas, however, was killed in this battle. He had 
raised his country to the highest eminence in military 
renown, but its power and splendor perished with him, 
363 years before the Christian era. The battle of 
MantinoBa was followed by a peace between all the Gre- 
cian states, which established their independence. 

54. Grecian Philosophy. Philosophy among the 
Greeks was said to be, the love and the pursuit of know- 
ledge, or wisdom, and comprehended two distinct branch- 
es, namely, the study of nature, which elevates and eno- 
bles the soul, and the study of morals, which inspires 
us with virtue, and leads us to happiness. After the 
time of Homer, the increasing relish for poetic compo- 
sition gave rise to a set of men called Rhapsodists, who 
used to recite the compositions of the older poets, on 
public occasions, and make comments on their merits 

53. What is said of Epaminondas 1 Why was he seized 
as a traitor ] What was done with him 1 What did he do 
%i his country 1 What effect did his death have ? 



46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

and doctrines. Some of them established schools, and 
were dignified with the titles of Sophists, or teachers of 
wisdom. Hence originated various schools, or systems 
of philosophy, many of which were but little else than 
a picture of the folly and caprice of the human mind. 
Some of the philosophers believed in the immortality of 
the soul, and in the rewards and punishments of a fu- 
ture life, while by others it was supposed that the soul 
perished with the body. 

55. Socrates, the Philosopher. Socrates, the wisest, 
the most virtuous, and the most celebrated philosopher 
of antiquity, was born at Athens, 470 years before Christ. 
He was fond of labor, inured to hardships, and was calm 
and serene in the midst of dangers and calamities. He 
bore injuries with patience, which virtue he had suffi- 
cient opportunities to practice towards his wife Xantippe, 
a woman of the most whimsical and provoking temper. 
His principal employment was the instruction of youth ; 
he kept, however, no fixed public school, but took every 
opportunity to deliver his lectures, which were given in 
the most enticing and agreeable manner. He was at- 
tended with a number of illustrious pupils, whom he in- 
structed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doc- 
trines. He spoke with freedom on various subjects, re- 
ligious as well as civil. This independence of spirit, 
and superiority of mind over the rest of his countrymen, 
created him many enemies. Socrates taught the belief 
of ^ first cause, whose beneficence is equal to his power, 
the Creator and Ruler of the universe. He also taught 
the immortality of the soul, and a state of future rewards 
and punishments. 

56. Death of Socrates. Socrates was accused by his 
enemies of corrupting the Athenian youth, of making in- 
novations in the religion of the Greeks, and of ridiculing 

54. What was philosophy among the Greeks said to be ] 
What did it comprehend ] What is said of the Rhapsodists 1 
The Sophists ? What is said of the systems of philosophy, and 
the philosophers'? 

55. Who was Socrates, and where was he born, and at what 
time ■? What is said of him 1 What did he teach ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



47 




Socrates about to drink the Hemlock poison. 

the gods. He was summoned before the council of live 
hundred, and by a majority of three, was condemned to 
death by drinking hemlock. In his defense he spoke 
with great animation, and the whole of his' discourse 
was full of simplicity and noble grandeur. The hour 
appointed for drinking the hemlock having come, they 
brought him the cup, which he received without any 
emotion, and then addressed a prayer to heaven ; he 
then drank off the poison with the utmost tranquillity. 
Observing his friends weeping, he reproved them with 
the greatest mildness, for, says he, " I have always heard 
that it is our duty calmly to resign our breath, giving 
thanks to God." After walking about a little while, 
feeling the poison begin to work, he lay down on his 
couch, and in a few moments expired, at the age of 70 
years. After his death the Athenians lamented his fate, 
and considered the misfortunes which afterwards befell 
the republic, as a punishment for the injustice of putting 
him to death. 

57. Plato, the Philosopher. Plato, a celebrated philos- 



56. Of what was Socrates accused ? 
him ] Relate the manner of his death, 
his friends 1 



What was done wi h 
What did he say lo 



48 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

opher of Athens, was at the age of twenty introduced to 
Socrates, and during eight years continued to be his 
pupil. After the death of Socrates, Plato visited Egypt, 
Persia, and other places, for the purpose of improving 
himself in the various branches of knowledge. On his 
return, he gave public lectures in the public grove called 
the Academy^ which was adorned with temples, statues, 
&c., and his disciples were called the Acade?nic sect. 
He was attended by crowds of noble and illustrious pu- 
pils, and for forty years labored in teaching the sublimest 
precepts, and composing those dialogues which have 
been the admiration of every age. His writings were 
so celebrated, and his opinions so respected, that he 
was called divine. Plato had the most sublime ideas of 
the Supreme Being; he taught, that amid all the changes 
and afflictions of life, man was an object of his regard, 
and that his soul was immortal. His philosophy and 
ideas were remarkably refined ; hence those sentiments 
and affections which are highly refined, pure, and spir- 
itual, are called Platonic. Plato died in the 81st year 
of his age, 348 years before Christ. 

58. Pythagoras. This philosopher, the founder of 
the Italian, or Pythagorean sect, was born at Samos, it is 
supposed about 550 years before the Christian era. Py- 
thagoras introduced into the western world a doctrine 
which it was supposed he obtained somewhere in the 
East, during his travels, namely, that of the transmigra- 
tion of souls ; which taught, that when men died, their 
souls passed into, and animated other bodies. If, for ex- 
ample, a man was wicked, his soul animated the body 
of some unclean animal, and passed through a progress 
of misery, proportioned to his crimes in this life. His 
disciples lived in common, strictly abstained from eating 
flesh, and held music in high estimation, as a corrector 
of the passions. Pythagoras was also distinguished 
for his discoveries in geometry, astronomy, and mathe- 
matics. His system of the universe, in which he 

57. Who was Plato 1 Where did he give iEctures I What 
were his disciples called 1 What did he teach 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 49 

placed the sun in the center, and all the planets moving 
about it, was deemed a wild fancy, till it was proved to 
be true by the discoveries of modern times. 

59. Cynic Philosophers. Antisthents, a disciple of 
Socrates, founded the sect of the Cynics, so celebrated for 
the austerity of its maxims, and audacity of its follow- 
ers. Virtue, in their opinion, consisted in a great meas- 
ure in renouncing all the conveniences of life. They 
clothed themselves in rags, slept and eat in the streets, 
condemned knowledge as useless, and indulged them- 
selves in censuring all the rest of mankind. Diogenes 
was also a philosopher of this sect. When he came to 
Athens, Antisth^nes at first refused to admit him into 
his house, and even struck him with a stick. Diogenes 
calmly said, " Strike, but never shall you find a stick 
hard enough to remove me from your presence, whilst 
there is any thing to be gained from your conversation 
and acquaintance." Such firmness recommended him 
to Antisthenes, and he became his most devoted pupil. 
Diogenes walked about with a tub or cask on his head, 
which served him as a house, and a place of repose. 
Such singularity, joined to the greatest contempt for 
riches, gained him great reputation, and Alexander the 
Great condescended to visit him in his tub. He asked 
Diogenes if there was any thing in which he could 
gratify or oblige him ? " Get out of my sunshine,^^ was 
the only answer from the philosopher. 

60. Of the Stoics. The sect of the Stoics was 
founded by Zeno, a native of Cyprus, who died 264 
years before Christ, at the age of 98. His followers 
derived their name from a portico at Athens, where 
Zeno gave his lectures. The Stoics believed that all 

58. Who was Pythagoras 1 Where born, and at what time 1 
What doctrine did he introduce ? What is said of his disci- 
ples ? In what discoveries was he distinguished ] What is 
said of his system of the universe ? 

59. Who was the founder of the Cynics'? What were their 
opinions and manners 1 What is said of Diogenes 1 What 
did he say to Alexander the Great 1 

60. By whom was the sect of Stoics ounded ? From what 

5 



50 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

nature, and God himself, the soul of the universe, was 
regulated by fixed and unalterable laws ; that every 
thing took place by unaA^oidable necessity, or fate. 
Their chief aim seems to have been, to render them- 
selves insensible to the miseries incident to human life. 
For this purpose they labored to convince themselves 
that " everything that happens, is for the best." " One 
part of valuable knowledge," said Zeno, " is to be igno- 
rant of what we ought not to know." A perfect Stoic 
did not regard even pain as an evil. Their philosophy 
was calculated to render them devoid of passion and 
frailty ; and it must be allowed, that some of the greatest 
and most virtuous men of antiquity embraced the prin- 
ciples of the Stoic philosophers. 

61. Of the Epicureans. This sect was founded by 
Epicurus, who was born near Athens, about 200 years 
before Christ. He gave proofs of his great genius at an 
early age. After having improved his mind by travel- 
ing in many countries, and hearing the lectures of the 
wise men of the age, he established himself at Athens, 
at that time the common resort of philosophers of every 
sect. By the sweetness and gravity of his manners, 
and by his social virtues, he soon attracted followers. 
He taught them, that the happiness of mankind consisted 
in pleasure ; not such as arises from sensual gratifica- 
tions and vice, but from the enjoyments of the mind, and 
the practice of virtue. Epicurus, however, held that 
the Deity was indifferent to the actions of men. His 
doctrines were rapidly spread over the world, and as the 
great majority of mankind, practically at least, appear to 
consider the gratification of the senses as the greatest 
pleasure, in preference to the practice of virtue, the 
morals of the people were undermined and destroyed. 
So addicted were those who professed to be his follow- 
ers, to ghittony, intemperance, &c., thut to this day 

was their name derived ] What was their belief] What is 
said of the Stoics and their philosophy] 

61. By whom were the Epicureans founded ' Whatissaid 
of Epicurus ] What did he teach ? What is said of his 
doctrines 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 51 

those who indulge their appetites in like mai^ner, are 
called Epicures. 

62 Of Aristotle and Pyrrho. Aristotle was a native 
of Macedonia. He went to Athens and spent twenty- 
years under the instructions of Plato, and afterwards 
opened a school for himself. He was a number of years 
instructor to Alexander the Great. The writings of 
Aristotle treat of almost every branch of knowledge 
known in his time : moral and natural philosophy, met- 
aphysics, grammar, criticism, and politics, all occupied 
his attention. His philosophy had great influence over 
the minds of men during sixteen centuries. Pyrrho 
was a sceptic philosopher in Greece, who flourished 
about 300 years before Christ. The Sceptics held that 
universal doubt is the only true wisdom ; and in their 
opinion, there was no material diflference between virtue 
and vice. Tranquillity of mind they considered as the 
state of the greatest happiness, and this w.as to be ob- 
tained by indifl"erence to all creeds and opinions. When 
Pyrrho was at sea, during a storm, and destruction 
seemed inevitable, he appeared calm and unconcerned, 
and pointing to a pig at the time quietly feeding, he told 
the crew, who were lost in lamentations, " this is a true 
model of a wise man." 

63. Grecian Historians. Herodotus, the first authen- 
tic historian among the Greeks, was born in Asia Minor, 
about 484 years before the Christian era. In his travels 
he made himself acquainted with the history of othei 
countries ; he arranged the materials which he had coU 
lected into the history which is still preserved. He re- 
cited to the people, at the Olympic games, the historj- 
he had composed ; it was received with such applause, 
that the name of the Nine Muses was given to the nine 
books into which it was divided, and procured for its 
author the title of " father of history." 

Thucydides, a few years younger than Herodotus, 

62. What is said of Aristotle'' How long did his philoso- 
phy have influence ] Who was Pyrrho 1 What is said of the 
Sceptics ] Relate an anecdote of Pyrrho. 



52 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

wrote with great ability the history of the first twenty- 
one years of the Peloponnesian, or civil war of Greece. 
He was a commander in this war for seven or eight 
years, examined every thing, collected materials, and 
made accurate memorandums of every transaction. 
Having lived in exile a number of years, he had suffi- 
cient leisure to execute his purpose. His history is 
distinguished for the fire of his descriptions, the con- 
ciseness, and at the same time, the strong and energetic 
manner of his narratives. Demosthenes, the celebrated 
orator, so much admired the history of Thucydides, that 
he transcribed it eight times, and could almost repeat it 
by heart. 

Xenophon was celebrated as a general, historian, and 
philosopher ; he was born about 450 years before Christ, 
and was a disciple of Socrates. He accompanied Cyrus 
the younger, in his attempt to dethrone his brother from 
the Persian throne. Cyrus was killed, and Xenophon, 
wnth 10,000 Greeks, was left in the midst of a victo- 
rious enemy, without money and provisions, 600 leagues 
from home. Xenophon, by his courage and masterly 
military skill, succeeded in guiding his countrymen, in 
their celebrated retreat, to their homes in safety, an in- 
teresting account of which he has oriven. His writings 
are distinguished for simplicity and degance. 

Plutarch was a native of Boetia, in Greece ; he died 
about 120 years after the Christian era. His lives of 
illustrious men are the most valuable literary works of 
the ancients, describing the private character and man- 
ners of celebrated persons, whose actions are recorded 
by historians. 

61. Of Archimedes. This celebrated geometrician of 
Syracuse, flourished about 250 years before Christ. 
He is distinguished for the ingenious machines which 
he invented for the defense of Syracuse, when that city 

63. Who was Herodotus ? Where did he recite his history ? 
How was it received'? What is said of Thucydides"? For 
what is his history distinguished ? Who was Xenophon 1 
V\ hat did he do ] Who was Plutarch ? What is said of his 
writings ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 53 

ras besieged by Marcellus, the Roman consul. Some- 
t\ these machines were so constructed, that he hoisted 
many of the Roman ships into the air, and then let them 
rail with such violence into the water, that they were 
broken and sunk : by his burning glasses he set others 
on fire. He also constructed engines, which threw 
stones of an enormous size. He is said to have de- 
clared, that if he could find a place out of the earth on 
which to place a lever, " he could move the world." 
Syracuse was taken after a siege of three years. The 
Roman general gave strict orders to his soldiers not to 
hurt Archimedes. A private soldier, who did not know 
him, found him deeply engaged in solving a mathemat- 
ical problem. Being commanded by the soldier to go 
with him to Marcellus, Archimedes very quietly begged 
of him to wait for a few moments, till he could finish 
his problem : but the soldier mistaking his request for 
a refusal to obey him, killed him on the spot. 

65. Grecian Architecture. After the defeat of Xerxes, 
the active spirit of the Athenians wishing for an object 
to distinguish itself, was signally displayed in works of 
taste in the fine arts. In these, the Greeks surpassed 
every nation ; and the monuments which remain are 
models of imitation, and the standard of excellence 
among the most polished nations in modern times. The 
golden age of the arts in Greece endured about a cen- 
tury, after the death of Alexander the Great. The 
Greeks were the founders of that system of architecture 
which is universally allowed to be the most perfect. It 
consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the Io?iic, 
and Corinthian. 

The Doric order has a masculine grandeur, and a su- 
perior air of strength to both the others. It is therefore 
best adapted to works of great magnitude, and of a sub- 
lime character. Of this order is the temple of Thesus, 



Ci. Who was Archimedes, and when did he flourish 1 For 
vvh It was he distinguished ? Relate what is said he declared. 
What was the manner of his death ? 

(15. What is said of the Grecian fine arts 1 Mention the 
three distinct orders of architecture. Describe the Doric, the 
5* 



54 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



at Athens, built ten years after the battle of Marathon, 
and is at this day almost entire. 




Doric. 



Ionic. 



Corinthian. 



The Ionic order is light and elegant, and distinguish- 
ed for simplicity, which is essential to true beauty. Of 
this order were the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, and 
the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 

The Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magnifi- 
cence, where pomp and splendor had become the ruling 
passion, but had not yet extinguished the taste for the 
sublime and beautiful. It attempts, therefore, an union 
of all these qualities. [The Tuscan and the Composite 
orders are of Italian origin, but they show that the 
Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all 
the prmciples of grandeur and beauty.] 

66. Grecian Sculpture, d^c. Sculpture was brought 
by the Greeks to great perfection. The remains of 
their sculpture are, to this day, the most perfect models 
of the art ; and modern artists have no means of attain- 
ing to excellence so certain, as the study of these 

fonic, and the Corinthian. What is said of the Tuscan and 
Composite orders'? 

60. What is said of the Grecian sculpture 1 What was the 
cause of their excelling in this art] What is said of their 
painting] Their music 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



55 



masler-pieces. The Grecians had the advantage of the 
modems in this respect : they had an opportunity of 
seeing the human figure in its most perfect shape, in 
their frequent gymnastic exercises, &c. ; and their man- 
ner of clothing did not disfigure the human form. Anoth- 
er great cause of their excellence in sculpture was, their 
attempts to represent the numerous gods and goddesses 
which they worshiped. In the art of painting, the 
Greeks appear to have been inferior to the artists of 
modern times. The music of the ancients, also appears 
to have been greatly inferior to that of the moderns. 

67. Demosthenes the Orator. Demosthenes, one of 
the most celebrated orators that ever lived, was born at 
Athens, 381 years before the Christian era. At the age 
of 17, he gave proofs of his eloquence and abilities ; but 
his rising talents were impeded by weak lungs and a 




Demosthenes, declaunin.g by the sea-shore. 

dilficulty of pronunciation ; and on his first attempt to 
speak in public, he was hissed by his hearers. He, 
however, overcame all obstacles, by close application. 
To correct the stammering of his voice, he spoke with 
pebbles in his mouth. That his pronunciation might be 

67. Who was Demosthenes 1 What is said of his first at- 
tempt to speak in pubhe ^ By what means did he cure his 



56 A.VCIFCNT HISTORY. 

loud, and full of emphasis, he frequently ran up the 
steepest and most uneven walks. In order to accustoin 
himself to the noise and tumult of a public assembly, he 
declaimed on the sea-shore, when the waves were un- 
commonly agitated. That he might devote himself 
closely to his studies without interruption, he retired to 
a cave, and shaved half his head, to prevent himself 
from appearing in public. His abilities as an orator 
raised him to the head of the government at iVthens, 
and his eloquence carried all before him, and was more 
dreaded by his enemies than the fleets and armies of 
Athens. Demosthenes, however, was charged vvith 
having received a bribe from the enemy, for which he was 
banished, but was afterwards recalled. When the gener- 
als of Alexander approached Athens, he fled ; and to pre- 
vent himself from falling into their hands, he took poison. 
68. Philip of Macedon. The Grecians, after their 
civil wars, lost in a great measure their simple manners, 
and the spirit of patriotism. In this situation, Philip of 
Macedon, by the artifices which he used, and by his mili- 
tary talents, brought the whole of Greece under his do- 
minion. Demosthenes, the Athenian orator, endeavored 
to arouse his countrymen to make a vigorous effort for 
their liberties. But the event was unsuccessful. The 
battle of CheroTKB, fought 338 years before Christ, decided 
the fate of Greece, and" subjected all her states to the 
control of the king of Macedon. It was not, however, 
the policy of Philip to treat them as a conquered people. 
He aiiowed them to retain their separate and independ- 
ent governments, while he controlled and directed alhna- 
tional measures. In a general council of the states, 
Philip was chosen- commander-in-chief of all the forces 
of Greece. He now formed a project for the conquest of 
the Persians, whose invasions of Greece, under Xerxes 

defects in speaking? How did he accustom himself to speak, 
during noise and tumult ? What did he do to apply himself to 
study "? 

68, How did Philip of Macedon bring the Gieeks into sub- 
jection? What was his policy towards them ? What project 
did he form, and what became of him ? 



ANCLEJNT HISTOR . 57 

and Darius, he resolved to punish n the eve of this 

enterprise, he was assassinated, au ,e mariiage of his 
daughter, by one of his captains. 

69. Alexander the Great. x\lexander, (afterwards 
siirnamed the Great,) the son of Philip, succeeded to 
the throne at the age of 20 years. - He was educated 
by Aristotle, for whom he ever afterwards had the high- 
est respect, and under such a master, made a most rapid 
progress in learning. He possessed a generous and 
heroic disposition, distinguished talents, and unl)ounded 
ambition. He very early became the most expert 
horseman in his father's court, and was the only person 
who dared to back the famous war-horse Bucephalus, 
sent as a present to Philip, which was so fiery and high- 
mettled, that no one could break him. Philip seeing 
Alexander on this ungovernable horse, cried out in rap- 
ture, " Seek, my son, another kingdom ; Macedonia is 
not worthy to contain you !" The Thebans having 
risen in rebellion, Alexander defeated them with great 
slaughter, destroyed their city, and sold .30,000 of the 
inhabitants for slaves. He then assembled the depu- 
ties of the Grecian states at Corinth, who solemnly 
elected him to be commander-in-chief of the Greeks 
against Persia. 

70. Battle of the Granicus. Alexander, having asr 
sembled an army of 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, with 
the sum of 70 talents, and provisions only for a month, 
crossed the Hellespont. Darius, king of Persia, resolv- 
ing to crush at once the young hero, met him at the 
river Granicus, with 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. 
Alexander, eager to engage the enemy, plunged into 
the river, and was followed by his troops, and gaining 
the opposite banks, attacked the astonished Persians, 
and put to flight their whole army. The Persians lost 
in this engagement 20,000 foot and 2500 horse : the 

59. Who was Alexander? What is said of him? Of his 
war-horse f How was he elected commander 1 

70. State the number of Alexander's army, and that of Da- 
rius. What were their losses] What did Alexander do, af- 
ter his first victory '? 



58 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

loss of Alexander was only about 200 men, among whom 
were 25 horsemen of the royal guard, to whose memory 
he ordered statues to be erected. Drawing from his 
first success a presage of continued victory, he sent 
home his fleet ; thus showing his army that they must 
conquer xA.sia, or perish in the attempt. 

71. Battle of Issus. Alexander, having for some 
time continued his march without resistance, was at 
length attacked by the Persian army under Darius, in 
a narrow valley of Cilicia, near the town of Issus. 
The Persian host amounted to 400,000 men ; but their 
situation was such, that only a small part of their force 
could come into action, and they were defeated with 
great slaughter, their loss being 1 1 0,000, while the 
Greeks lost only 450 men. The mother and two 
daughters of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror. 
The real greatness and heroism of Alexander, now in 
the bloom of youth, unmarried, and a conqueror, shone 
forth in the greatest luster. He would not trust him- 
self in the presence of the queen of Darius, who was a 
woman of great beauty. Far from attempting to derive 
any ungenerous advantage from his victory, he treated 
his illustrious captives with the greatest kindness and 
respect. In consequence of the battle of Issus, the 
.whole of Syria submitted to Alexander. Damascus, 
where Darius had deposited his treasures, was surren- 
dered by the governor, and the whole of Phoenicia, with 
the exception of Tyre. 

72. Siege of Tyre. Alexander now directed his 
course towards Tyre, and demanded admittance into it, 
in order to ofier a sacrifice to the Tyrian Hercules. 
Being refused, he immediately besieged the city. New 
Tyre, which was situated on an island opposite the old 
city, seemed to be unconquerable without a fleet. Alex- 
ander, with immense labor, attempted to join the island to 
the continent by a causeway. The Sidonians, an(? 
some other people, whom he had treated with gentle 

71. What is said of the battle of Issus? What of the moth 
er, daughters, and queen of Darius 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 59 

ness, at last found ships for carrying on the entei prise. 
He then hastened the sicge^ and all sorts of warlike in- 
struments were employed by both parties. The place 
was finally taken by storm, after a siege of eight months. 
About 8,000 of the inhabitants were put to death, and 
30,000 sold into slavery. Having taken Gaza, Alexan- 
der passed into Egypt, which readily submitted to his 
authority, and while here, he founded the city of Alex- 
andria, at the mouth of the Nile. 

73. Final conquest of Persia. Returning from Egypt, 
Alexander went into Assyria, where he was met by Da- 
rius, at Arbela, at the head of 700,000 men. Darius 
offered Alexander, as terms of peace, ten thousand tal- 
ents, his daughter in marriage, and the whole country 
from the Euphrates to the Hellespont. These terms 
being rejected, Alexander informed Darius that he had 
no occasion for his money, and as for the provinces he 
named, he had already conquered them, and that he 
was ready for another battle, which v^^ould probably de- 
cide who should remain the conqueror, and that " the 
world could no more admit two masters than two suns." 
A battle took place, in which the Persians were defeat- 
ed, with the loss of 300,000 men. Darius escaped, and 
fled from province to province, until he was at last mur- 
dered by one of his own officers. Thus ended the I^er- 
sian empire, which submitted to the conqueror 330 
years before the Christian era, after having existed two 
aundred and six years from the time of Cyrus the Great. 

74, Conquest of India. After the conquest of Persia, 
Alexander projected the conquest of India, fully persua- 
ded that the gods had decreed him the sovereignty of the 
whole habitable globe. Finding his troops incumbered 
with baggage, by which his march was retarded, he 
gave orders to set fire to it, and began by burning his 



72. How did Alexander conquer Tyre \ By whom was he 
assisted 1 What did he do, after the conquest of Tyre, and 
what city did he found 1 

73. What did Darius offer Alexander, as terms of peace ^ 
What was Alexander's reply "? What became qf Darius ] 
What is said of the Persian empire % 



60 



ANCIENT HISTORY 



own. He penetrated into India, where Porus, a pow- 
erful monarch, opposing his further progress, was defeat- 
ed and taken prisoner. He penetrated to the Ganges, 
and would have advanced to the eastern ocean, had the 
spirit of his army kept pace with his ambition. But his 
soldiers, seeing no end to their toils, refused to proceed 
any farther eastward. He therefore returned to the Indus, 
and caused his army to sail down that river to the ocean : 
here he sent his fleet to the Persian Gulf, under Near- 
chus, and with the main body of his army, marched 
across the desert of Persepolis. 

75. Death of Alexander. " Finding no more worlds to 
conquer," Alexander abandoned himself to every excess 
of luxury and debauchery. It is related, that, through the 
instiofation of Thais, a woman of low character, while he 




Alexander and Thais b 



was in a drunken frolic, he fired the city of Persepolis 
This place was the ancient capital of Persia, the ruins o\ 

74. What did Alexander do, after the conquest of Persia ? 
How far did he penetrate l What prevented his proceeding 
farther eastward ? 

75. After Alexander had conquered the world, what did he 
do 1 Why did he burn PersepoUs ? What is farther said of 
Alexander 1 What caused his death? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 61 

which astonish the traveler to this day, by their grandeur 
and magniiicence. The arrogance of Alexander was 
now increased, and the ardor of his passions, heightened 
by continual intemperance, broke out into acts of outra- 
geous cruelty ; and while in the heat of passion, he kill- 
ed Clitus, his best friend. At this period of his life, 
he appears to have been swollen by flattery and enervated 
by vice, and to have acted the part of a tyrant. While 
at Babylon, at an entertainment which he gave to one of 
his officers, he drank to such excess, that it brought on a 
fever. Finding that there was no hope of recovery, he 
delivered his ring to Perdiccas. On being asked to whom 
he left*the empire, he replied, "To the most worthy." 
Perdiccas having asked him how soon he desired they 
should pay divine honors to his memory, he answered, 
" When ye shall be happy." These were his last words. 

76. Of Ro?ne. Rome, the last of the four great 
empires of antiquity, becomes, after the conquest of 
Greece, the leading object of attention. It rose gradu- 
ally from small beginnings to almost universal empire. 
The duration of the Roman power, or that of its history, 
embraces a period of about twelve centuries, — from the 
foundation of Rome to the destruction of the empire, 
after the Christian era. This great interval may be 
divided into three grand and distinct epochs, or periods, 
namely: 1. 'Rome Mn&ev The Kings; 2. The Republic ; 
3. The Emperors. 

77. Roman Kings. The early history of the Ro- 
mans^ like that of other ancient nations, is mixed with 
fable. It appears, however, that they were governed by 
kings for 244 years ; arid during the reign of the kings, 
and the early part of the republic, the Roman territories 
extended only about fifteen or twenty miles around the 
capital. Of Romulus, the first king, some account has 
been given. 

76. What is said of Rome ? What was the di.'ration of the 
Roman power 1 Into what periods may this time be divided 1 

77. Wliat is said of the early history of the Romans? 
How long were they governed by kings'? Who was the first 

6 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, was elected second king 
of Rome. He is represented as a virtuous prince, who 
cherished the arts of peace, obedience to the laws, and 
a respect for religion. 

Tullus Hostilius, the third king, was of a warlike 
disposition. His reign is memorable for the romantic 
story of the Horatii. three brothers, who fought for 
Rome, and the Curiatti, also three brothers, who fought 
for Alba. One of the Horatii survived, all the rest be- 
ing slain, and by this contest the Romans became mas- 
ters of Alba. 

Ancus Martius, the fourth king, conquered the Latins, 
and built the port of Ortia, at the mouth of the Tiber. 

Tarquin, the Eldrr, was elected the fifth king of Rome, 
which he embellished with various works of utility. 

Servius Tullus succeeded Tarquin. He created the 
Roman aristocracy, established the census, in which the 
number of citizens, their dwellings, number of children, 
and amount of property, were ascertained. 

Tarquin, surnamed the Prowc?, the last king, began 
his reign by putting to death the chief senators ; and by 
his tyranny and cruelty disgusted all classes of his sub- 
jects, and was expelled the throne. 

78. Death of Lucretia. Sextus, a son of Tarquin 
the Proud, having entered the house of Collatinus, un- 
der the mask of friendship, did violence to^iis wife, 
Lucretia, a noble Roman lady, distinguishe#i^r her 
beauty and domestic virtues. The unhappy Lucretia 
immediately sent for her husband and father, revealed 
to them the indignity she had received, conjured them 
to avenge her wrong, and stabbed herself with a dagger 
she had concealed about her clothes. Her husband and 
friends were filled with grief, rage, and despair. Bru- 
tus, a relative, and a reputed fool, seizing the bloody 
dagger, and lifting it towards heaven, exclaimed ; " Be 

king ? What was the reign of Tullus Hostilius memorable 
for ! What is said of Servius Tullus ] Who was the last 
king, and what did he do ] 

78. Who did violence to Lucretia 1 Wiiat did she do 1 
What is said of Brutus ? What wus done with Tarquin ? 



AdTCIENT HISTORY. 63 

witnesses, ye gods, that from this moment I proclaim 
myself the avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause. 
Henceforth, my life shall be employed in opposition to 
tyranny, and for the freedom and happiness of my coun- 
try." The body of Lucretia was carried to the pub- 
lic square, the vengeance of the people was aroused, 
the senate banished Tarquin and his family forever 
from the Roman state, and the kingly government was 
abolished, 509 years before the Christian era. 

79. Roman Republic. The regal or kingly govern- 
ment being abolished, a republican form of govern- 
ment was established. The supreme power belonged to 
the senate and people ; and it was agreed to commit 
the supreme authority to two consuls, who were to be 
chosen annually from the patrician families. These 
consuls had the disposal of the public money, the power 
of assembling the people, raising armies, naming all the 
officers, and the right of making peace and war. In 
fact, their power scarcely differed from that of the 
kings, except their authority was limited to a year. 
The first consuls were, Collatinus, the husband of 
Lucretia, and Brutus, her avenger. 

80. Judgment of Brutus. The new form of govern- 
ment was brought to the brink of ruin, almost at the mo- 
ment of its formation. Tarquin found means to organize 
a coj^jucy among the young nobility of Rome, whose 
objd^^^P to replace him on the throne. This plot was 
disco^^d, and the brave and patriotic Brutus had the 
mortification and unhappiness to discover, that his two 
sons were ringleaders in this conspiracy. His office was 
such, that he was compelled to sit in judgment upon 
them ; and while, in this deeply interesting scene, all 
the spectators were in tears, he condemned them to be 
beheaded in his presence. The most powerful feelings 

79. What was the form of government in Rome, after that 
of kings ] To whom was committed the supreme authority ] 
What power did the consuls have 1 

80. Who conspired against the new government, and who 
were ringleaders in the plot ] What did Brutus do, and what 
is said of himi 



6i ANCIENT HISTORT. 

of nabural affection were OA-^erruled by a sense of his 
duty as an impartial judge. " He ceased to be a father," 
says an ancient author, " that he might execute the 
duties of a consul, and chose to live childless, rather 
than neglect the public punishment of a crime." 

81. Cmcinnatuy, the Dictator. Ten years after the 
commencement of the Roman republic, Largius was 
appointed the first dictator. This magistrate was chosen 
only in times of difficulty and danger, when quick and 
decisive measures were necessary, and could continue 
in power no longer than six months. The dictator was 
clothed with power to dictate, that is, to direct what 
should be done, and his power was absolute. About 50 
years from the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans, being 
in great and immediate danger from an invasion, a 
solemn deputation was sent to Cincinnatus, to invest 
him with the sovereign power of dictator. They found 
him laboring on his farm, consisting only of a few acres, 
which he cultivated with his own hands for the support 
of his family. He left the plough with regret, and re- 
paired to the field of battle, wli§re he vanquished the 
enemy, returned to Rome with the spoils, resigned his 
office, which he held but sixteen days, and though a 
poor man, would receive no compensation for his im- 
portant services. At the age of 80 years, he was again 
called from his farm to the office of dictatoi^^^^h he 

leld for twenty-one days, during which tim^^Hlgain 
-'anquished the enemy. 

82. The Decemvirs. The Romans had hitherto pos- 
sessed no body of written laws. The arl)itrary proceed- 
ings of their kings and consuls were frequently the sub- 
ject of complaint, and the citizens became desirous ot 
having a fixed code of laws, for the security of their 
rights. Three commissioners were therefore sent to 
Greece in order to procure the laws of Solon, and such 
others as were deemed useful in forming a suitable code. 
Upon the return of the commissioners, ten of the princi- 

81. What is said of the dictator ? IIovv long could he con- 
tinue in power? What is said of Cincinnatus? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 65 

pal senators, called decemvirs, were appointed to frame 
a body of laws, and put them in force for one year. This 
was the origin of the celebrated statutes called the 
*' Laios of the twelve tables.'''' The decemvirs were in 
vested with absolute power ; each decemvir, by turn, 
presided for a day. They governed so well for the first 
yoar, that they obtained a new appointment, but they 
soon became tyrannical. 

Appius Claudius, one of the decemvirs, having made a 
base attempt to obtain possession of Virginia, a beautiful 
maiden, her father, Viginius, in order to prevent the dis- 
honor of his daughter, plunged a dagger into her breast. 
Brandishing the bloody weapon, he exclaimed, " By this 
blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods," 
and running wildly through the city roused the people to 
vengeance. x'\ppius soon after killed himself in prison ; 
the other decemvirs were exiled, and the decemvirate 
having continued three years, was abolished, and the 
consular government restored. 

83. Military Tribune Censors. The common people 
of Rome, or Plebeians, were prohibited intermarrying 
with the Patricians, or higher class, who held the higher 
offices of state. If this restraint could be removed, the 
plebeians and patricians would be placed on an equality. 
After a long struggle, the distinctions were done away, 
and it;w|^agreed on both sides, that instead of consuls, 
six miUi^^^ tribunes^ with the power of consuls, should 
be chosen, three plebeians and three patricians. This 
measure satisfied the people for a time ; the consuls, 
however, were soon restored. The disorders of the re- 
public had interrupted the regular enumeration of the 
citizens. Two officers were appointed, under the title of 
censors, whose duty it was to make a census every five 



82. Why did the Romans wish for a. fixed code of laws] 
What was done tor this purpose ? What is said of the decem- 
virs 1 What is related of Virginius ? How long did the de- 
cemvirate continue ] 

• 83. V\'hat is said of the Plebeians and Patricians'? What 
of the military tribunes ? What was the duty of the censors ] 
How did the senate raise an armv when wanted ^ 
6* 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

years, inspect the morals and regulate the duties of the 
citizens — an office of great dignity and importance. To 
do away the frequent necessity of the dictatorship, as the 
people many times refused to enrol themselves in the 
army when wanted, the senate gave regular pay to the 
troops. In order to raise money, a moderate tax was laid 
upon the citizens, in proportion to their wealth. By this 
means the government found soldiers at command ; the 
army was under its control ; the enterprises of the re- 
public were more extensive, its successes more import- 
ant, and from^ this period the Roman system of war as- 
sumed a new aspect. 

84. Invasion of Rome by the Gauls. Veii, a power- 
ful city, 12 miles from Rome, and its proud rival, was ta- 
ken after a siege of ten years, by CamiUus. This event 
was succeeded by a war with the Gauls, one of the bar- 
barous nations inhabiting France, then called Gaul. 
These men are represented as exceedingly bold, fierce, 
of great size and strength, and terrible in war. A nu- 
merous body of these men had two centuries before cross- 
ed the Alps, and settled themselves in the northern parts 
of Italy, and were a terror to all the country. Under 
the command of Brennus, their king, they laid siege to 
Clusium, the inhabitants of which implored the assist- 
ance of the Romans. The senate sent ambassadors to 
Brennus, to demand of him what right he had to invade 
that city. He sternly replied, that the " rights of valiant 
men lie in their swords," and demanded, in return, what 
right the Romans had to the many cities they had con- 
quered. The ambassadors having entered Clusium, as- 
sisted the inhabitants against Brennus, who was so in- 
censed that he raised the siege, and marched directly 
against Rome ; and in a great battle, he defeated the Ro- 
man army with great slaughter. 

85. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. Brennus, 
after his victory, marched into Rome without opposition, 
and going into the forum beheld the ancient senators 

84. What is said of the city of Veii ? What of the Gauls ? 
What is said of Brennus ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY 67 

sitting in their order unmoved ; the splendid habits, the 
gravity and venerable appearance of these old men, awed 
the enemy for a while into reverence, but at length they 
put them all to the sword, massacred all the inhabitants 
which remained in the city, which they burnt to ashes, 
and razed the walls to the ground. The Gauls next at- 
tacked the capitol ; but they were repelled with great 
bravery. At length, having found a passage to the top of 
the Tarpeian rock, a body of Gauls attemjited to gain 
the summit in the night, which they accomplished while 
the sentinel was asleep. At this moment, the cackling 
of some geese in the temple of Juno, awakened Marius 
Manlius, with his associates, who instantly threw the 
Gauls headlong down the precipice. 

86. Expulsion of the Gauls. Brennus having grown 
weary of the siege of the citadel, proposed to the Ro- 
mans, if they would pay him a thousand weight of gold 
he would draw off' his army and give them no farther 
trouble. The gold was brought, but while it was weigh- 
ing some of the Gauls attempted to kick the beam, to pre- 
vent a just weight ; the Romans complained of the injus- 
tice, but Brennus immediately threw his sword into the 
balance, and gave them to understand their complaints 
would be useless. At this moment news was brought, 
that Camillus, the Roman general, was approaching with 
an army to the assistance of his countrymen. Having 
been informed of the deception and insolence of the 
Gauls, he ordered the gold to be carried back to the capi- 
tol, adding, that " Rome must be ransomed by steel, aad 
not by gold." Upon this a battle ensued, in which the 
Gauls were entirely routed, and Camillus was honored 
as the second founder of Rome. These events took 
place about 385 years before the Christian era. 

87. Character of the Ancient Romans. The Roman 
people, in these ancient times, exhibited a mixture of 

85. What did Brennus do ? How was the capitol saved ] 

86. On what terms did Brennus propose to leave them ? 
What was done when the gold was brought \ What is said of 
Camillus ! 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

bravery, superstition, barbarity, discipline, enthiisiasm, 
and wisdom. They were often engaged in war, and 
generally successful. Their small territory was ravaged, 
their city burnt by the Gauls, and many of their bravest 
men killed in battle ; yet they were not conquered, for 
they had resources left. These consisted of firm and 
determined spirits, — great souls, fearless of danger and 
death. To brave danger was to them the field of glory ; 
their only alternative was death or victory. They en- 
joyed a victory, or endured a defeat, with moderation. 
They possessed independent and unconquerable minds, 
endued with invincible bravery and magnanimity. 'I'he 
effect of the invasion of the Gauls roused their martial 
spirit, and they became more warlike and formidable 
than ever. 

87. What is said of the character of the Ancient Romans? 
What of their territory and resources \ What was the effect 
of the invasion ] 



PERIOD IV. 

FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER TO THE CH.tlSriAN ERA. 
(323 YEARS.; . 




Map showing places mentioned in Period IV. 

88. Successors of Alexander. Alexander, on his death- 
bed, having named no successor, his vast empire was 
soon rent in pieces by the greedy soldiers who had as- 
sisted him in acquiring universal dominion. The empire 
was divided among thirty-three of the principal officers. 
Hence arose a period of confusion, bloodshed, and crime, 
with a series of intrigues, fierce and bloody wars, which 
resulted in the total extirpation of Alexander's family, 
and a new partition of the empire into four monarchies , 
namely, that of Egypt^ under Ptolemy; Macedonia, in- 
cluding Greece, under Cassander ; Thrace with Bitliynia, 
under Lysimachas ; and Syria, Sic, under Seleucus 



88. To whom was Alexander's empire divided 1 
monarchies ] Which were the most powerful ^ 



Into whal 



70 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

The two most powerful kingdoms were Syria and Egypt 
Syria was governed by Seleucus and his descendants, 
and Egypt by the Ptolemies, till they were both brought 
under the dominion of the Romans, who, after Alexan- 
der, became masters of the world. 

89. Conquest of Italy by the Romans. A fter the Ro 
mans had expelled the Gauls, they next turned theii 
arms against the Samnites, a hardy race of mountaineers 
inhabiting a tract in the south part of Italy. This con 
test continued for fifty years ; the Samnites fought with 
great valor and skill, but were finally subdued ; and 
soon after all the states of Italy submitted to the Ro- 
mans. In the course of the war the Tarentines^ the al- 
lies of the Samnites, sought the aid of Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, in Greece, the greatest general of his age ; he 
landed in Italy with 20,000 men, and a train of ele- 
phants, 280 years before Christ. Pyrrhus was at first 
successful, but afterwards defeated, and he returned to 
his own dominions. 

90. First Punic or Carthaginian War. The first 
Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Car- 
thage, 264 years before Christ, and lasted 24 years. 
The two nations had viewed each other with jealousy 
for a long period, when Sicily, an island of the highest 
importance to the Carthaginians, as a commercial na- 
tion, became the seat of the first dissentions. From a 
private quarrel the war became general. The Romans 
gained a victory in Sicily, but as the Carthaginians 
were masters of the sea, it was of but little consequence. 
The Romans now earnestly devoted themselves to cre- 
ate a navy. A Carthaginian vessel being wrecked on 
their coast, it served as a model, and within two or 
three months they fitted out a fleet of 120 galleys, and 
put it under the command of the consul Duillious, who 

89. What is said of the Samnites 1 Of the Tarentines ? 
Of whom did they seek aid 1 What of Pyrrhus I 

90. When was the first Punic War 1 How long did it last 1 
What was the cause of t)ie war 1 Who were masters of the 
sea ? How did the Romans create a navy 1 How did Car- 
thage obtain peace ] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 71 

defeated the Carthaginian fleet, and took fifty of their 
vessels. The war contimied to rage with various suc- 
cess, in Africa and Sicily, till Carthage, to obtain a peace, 
was compelled to abandon Sicily, and pay to the Ro- 
mans 3,200 talents of silver. 

91. Regulus, the Roman Patriot. The consul Reg- 
ulus was sent with an army into Africa, where he was 
defeated, taken prisoner, and confined some years in a 
dungeon. The Carthaginians being wearied out with 
the war, sent ambassadors to Rome in order to make 
peace, and Regulus was allowed to accompany them, 
hoping he would plead their cause. They however first 
exacted a promise from him, that if the embassy proved 
unsuccessful he would return to Carthage, and hinted 
to him that his life depended on the success of his ne- 
gociation. Regulus, believing the treaty which the 
Carthaginians wished to make would be injurious to 
his country, prevailed upon the Roman senate to reject 
it, although by so doing his life would be sacrificed. 
This noble Roman returned to Carthage, where he was 
punished with the greatest severity. They cut off his 
eyelids, and he was exposed some days in the strong 
heat of the sun ; he was afterwards confined in a barrel 
stuck full of nails, whose points entering his flesh, did 
not allow him a moment's ease ; and to complete their 
cruelty, they nailed him to a cross, where he expired. 

92. Second Punic War. From the first Punic war 
to the Second, was an interval of twenty-three years. 
During this period Carthage was recruiting her strength, 
and meditated to revenge her losses and disgrace. She 
began the second war by besieging Saguntum, a city of 
Spain, in alliance with the Romans. Hannibal, one of 
the greatest generals of antiquity, was the son of Hamil- 
car^ the Carthaginian commander in the first Punic war. 
Hannibal, at the early age of nine years, by the desire 

91. What is said of Regulus 1 What promise was exacted 
from him ? What advice did he give ] Describe the manner 
of his death. 

92. How long was the interval between the first and second 
Punic Wars 1 Who was Hannibal 1 What is said of him ] 



72 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



of his father, solemnly swore upon the altar, eternal 
enmity to the Romans. At the age of twenty-six he 
had the chief command of the army, and having taken 
Saguntum, formed the bold design of carrying the war 
into Italy. He provided against every difficulty, passed 
the Pyrenees, and arrived at the Alps, after a toilsome 
march of five months from his leaving Carthagena in 
Spain. 




HannibaVs Army jjnfisi.'i;^ t 



93. Passage of the Alps by Hannihal. This cele- 
brated exploit was accomplished in about two weeks. 
Hannibal followed up the waters of the Rhone, until he 
arrived at the foot of the Alps ; the mountains, with 
their snowy tops reaching into the clouds, the naked 
and apparently inaccessible cliffs over which they must 
pass, the hostile Gauls on the precipices which hung 
over their heads, ready to check them by rolling down 
tremendous rocks, were objects well calculated to fill 
an army with dismay. Hannibal having ascertained 
that the mountaineers left the pass at night, he with a 
small party of light troops passed through, and made 



93. How long was Hannibal in passing the Alps ] Describ* 
the dangers of the passage. What number of men did he hav 
after the passage, and how many were lost in it 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 73 

himself master of the eminences in the vicinity, and by 
this means his army gained the first pass ; but this was 
only the commencement of difficulties ; sometimes fall- 
ing into ambush by the treachery of guides, again led 
through bewildering tracts, and now attacked by large 
bodies of their enemies. But the resolute Carthagi- 
nians pressed onward, and reached the summit on the 
ninth day. Snow now commenced falling, which in- 
creased the danger of the way; but Hannibal arrived 
on the plains of Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse, 
having lost nearly half his army during this perilous en- 
terprise. 

94. Victories of Hannibal. The first victory gained 
by Hannibal, after crossing the Alps, was over Scipio, 
who met him near the river Po, with a numerous army, 
soon after he entered Italy. A few days after, he routed 
another army, under the command of Sempronius, with 
great slaughter. The third army, commanded by Flam- 
mius, he cut off near Lake Thrasymenus, where the 
Romans, surrounded by woods and morasses, and hem- 
med in by their enemies, fought with desperation. Rome 
was now in the utmost consternation, a dictator was ap- 
pointed, Fahius Maximus being elected to that office. 
He was sent with an army in quest of Hannibal, but 
avoided coming into a general engagement with him. 
This cautious and prudent conduct greatly distressed 
Hannibal, who frequently offered him battle. The com- 
mand of Fabius expiring, Varro, a man of rash courage, 
was appointed in his place, who advanced against Han- 
nibal with 90,000 men, the flower and strength of Italy. 
They fought near Canrice, and the Romans were terribly 
defeated, leaving forty, some say seventy thousand dead 
on the field of battle ; and it is said that three bushels 
of gold rings were sent to Carthage, taken from the 
fingers of the dead Roman knights. 

95. Ending of the Second Punic War. Immediately 
after the battle of Cannse Hanmbal sent to Carthage for 

94. Describe the first three victories of Haimibal. What 
is said of the dictator Fabius Maximus 1 What of Varro "* 
Wh^at of the battle of Cannae 1 

7 



74 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

more troops to complete the reduction of Rome, but 
owing to the influence of Hanno, a powerful demagogue 
in the senate of Carthage, no assistance was given. 
Hannibal, however, carried on the war, and kept posses- 
sion of the finest part of fiome for fifteen years ; the Ro- 
mans, though unable to drive him out of Italy, sent Scipio 
and others into Spain, Sicily, and finally into Africa., 
Alarmed for the fate of their empire, the Carthaginians 
recalled Hannibal, who found the afl^airs of his country 
in a desperate condition. His army being much inferioi 
to that of the Romans, he endeavored to effect a peace, 
but Scipio charged the Carthaginians with perfidy and 
injustice ; and both sides prepared for a battle, which 
was to decide the fate of Carthage and Rome. The 
hostile armies met on the plains of Zama, about five 
days' journey from Carthage ; a memorable battle was 
fought, and the Carthaginians were totally defeated. 
A peace soon followed : the Carthaginians agreed to 
abandon Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean 
give up nearly the whole of their possessions, and in 
future undertake no war without the consent of the Ro- 
mans. Thus ended the second Punic war, 202 years be- 
fore Christ, after having continued for seventeen years. 
96. Third Punic War. Fifty years after the close 
of the second Punic war, the industrious Carthaginians 
began to recover from the abject state to which that war 
had reduced them. Cato the Censor, who swayed the 
decisions of the Roman senate, having occasion to visit 
Carthage, on his return gave such accounts of its growl- 
ing power, that he awakened their jealousy, ending all 
his speeches, it is said, with this expression, " Carthage 
mast be destroyed.''^ At this period the Carthaginians 
attempted to repel the Numidians. who had invaded 
their territories ; the Romans pretending this was a vio- 

95. What did Hannibal do after the battle of Cannae ? How 
long did he continue in Rome ? Why was Hannibal recalled ? 
Who were defe ited at Zamal Why did the Carthaginians 
agree to have peace ? 

96. Who visited Carthage 1 With what expression did he 
end his speeches ] What did the Romans do 1 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 75 

lation of their treaty, made it a pretext for sending an 
army to Carthage. Conscious of their inability to re- 
sist the Romans, the Carthaginians offered every sub- 
mission, and even consented to acknowledge themselves 
the subjects of Rome. The Romans demanded 300 
young Carthaginians of the first distinction, as hostages 
for the strict performance of every condition the senate 
should require. These severe terms were submitted to, 
and the hostages were given. 

97. Destruction of Carthage. The Romans having 
obtained possession of the hostages, the Carthaginians 
were told that they must deliver up all their arms ; to 
this they also were obliged to consent. They were 
then required to remove from Carthage, as the Roman 
people were determined to demolish the city. This de- 
mand was heard by the inhabitants with indignation and 
despair : they shut their gates, and determined to defend 
themselves to the last extremity. The delay of the Ro- 
man consuls, who did not expect much resistance from 
a disarmed city, gave time to the inhabitants to make 
preparations for a siege. The temples, palaces, and 
open squares, were changed into arsenals, where men 
and women wrought day and night, in the manufacture 
of arms. After a desperate resistance for three years, 
the city was taken by Scipio, and was burnt by a fire 
which raged during 17 days. Such of the inhabitants 
as disdained to surrender themselves as prisoners of 
war, were either massacred or perished in the flames. 
Thus was Carthage, which had existed for 700 years, 
and containing at the commencement of the war 
700,000 inhabitants, reduced to ashes, and even Scipio, 
the Roman consul, wept over the ruins of the proud 
rival of his country. 

98. Corruption of the Roman Commonwealth. The 
same year in which Carthage was destroyed, Corinth 

97. What did the Romans require of the Carthaginians 1 
When required to demolish their city, what did they do 1 How 
long did they resist the Romans 1 How long had Carthage 
existed, and how many inhabitants did it contain 1 



76 ANCIENT HISTORY". 

was taken and Greece was reduced to a Roman province. 
The power of Rome was now widely extended ; her 
arms everywhere triumphant, and she was freed from 
the fear of a rival. Her power and splendor drew to 
her men of learning, taste, ambition, and enterprise, and in 
short, men of every description, from almost every na- 
tion. The descendants of the ancient Romans became 
few in comparison with the great number who, by some 
means or other, became citizens or obtained a residence 
in Italy. While Rome drew art, elegance, and science, 
from Greece, she drew wealth, luxury, effeminacy, and 
corruption, from Asia and Africa. In the unequal dis- 
tribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it 
gave rise, the corruption, bribery, extortion, and oppres- 
sion, which followed, we see the cause of those fatal 
disorders which extinguish the spirit of liberty, and put 
a period to the republic. 

99. The Gracchi. This name is given to Tiberius 
and Cains Gracchus, two noble youths, whose zeal to 
reform the growing abuses and corruptions of the Roman 
state, drew them into measures destructive of all govern- 
ment and social order. Tiberius, the elder of the broth- 
ers, urged the people to assert by force, the revival of an 
ancient law for limiting property in land, and thus lessen 
the overgrown estates of the nobility of patricians. 
A tumult was the consequence, in which Tiberius and 
300 of his friends were killed in the forum by the sena- 
tors. This fatal example did not deter his brother Caius 
from pursuing a similar course, in endeavoring to main- 
tain by force the privileges of the people against the 
encroachments of the senate. But, like his brother, he 
fell a victim to the attempt, with 3000 of his partisans, 
who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome. From 
tnis period, civil disorders followed in quick succession, 
to the end of the commonwealth. 

98. When was Greece reduced to a Roman province 1 
What is said of the power of Rome ? How did the Roman 
people bepome corrupt 1 

99. Who were the Gracchi ? By what means did Tiberius 
lose his life ] What is said of Caius Gracchi ^ 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 77 

100. War of Jugurtha. The circumstances attend- 
ing this war, give decisive proof of the corruption of the 
Roman manners. Jugurtha, a grandson of Masinissa, 
attempted to usurp the throne of Numidia, in Africa, by- 
destroying his cousins, Heimpsal arid Adherbal, sons of 
the deceased king. He murdered the elder, but Adher- 
bal escaping, applied to Rome for aid ; but the senate 
being bribed by Jugurtha, divided the kingdom between 
the two. Jugurtha then declared open war against his 
cousin, besieged him in his capital, Cirta, and finally 
put him to death, and seized the whole kingdom. To 
avert a threatened war, Jugurtha went to Rome, plead 
his own cause in the senate, and once more, by bribery, 
prevailed upon them to free him from all charge of 
criminality. A perseverance in a similar course of con- 
duct, roused the vengeance of the Romans, who sent an 
army against him. Jugurtha was taken prisoner, led in 
chains to Rome, and confined in a dungeon, where he 
was starved to death, 103 years B. C. 

101. Social and Civil Wars. A confederacy of the 
states of Italy against Rome, to obtain the rights of citi- 
zenship, occasioned the Social War, which raged for sev- 
eral years, in which 300,000 men are said to have per- 
ished. It was ended by giving the rights of .citizenship 
to all the confederates who would peaceably return to 
their allegiance. The Civil War commenced 88 years 
B. C, between Marius and Sylla. These men being 
leaders of the Republic, became rivals and enemies, and 
carried on a bloody warfare against each other. It was 
attended with the most horrible massacres of the citi- 
zens ; and from the time of Sylla, Rome never saw 
another moment of freedom. In the civil war, 33 per- 
sons who had been consuls, 200 senators, and 1 50,000 
Roman citizens, perished, and thousands were left to 

100. Who was Jugurtha? Who Adherbal ? Bywhatmeans 
did Jugurtha obtain the kingdom? What finally became of 
Jugurtha ? 

101. Whnt occasioned the Social Wars in Italy ? How many 
men are said to have perished ] Who were Marius and Sylla ^ 
What is said of the Civil Wars ? 

7* 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

drag out a miserable existence, without friends or means 
of subsistence. Rome, the mistress of the world, was 
compelled to submit to her blood-thirsty tyrants ; and 
her cruelties to Carthage and other fallen enemies, were 
visited upon her own head. 

102. Caius Marius. This celebrated Roman was a 
plebeian by birth, and his parents were poor. He was a 
man of very great stature, strength, and bravery. Hav- 
ing passed through the lower grades of life, he wa? 
elected seven times to the office of consul. He distin- 
guished himself in the war against Jugurlha. After the 
defeat of that king, Rome was invaded by an army ol 
300,000 barbarians; Marius being consul, defeated them 
in two engagements, in which the barbarians lost 100,000 
killed, and 90,000 prisoners. In the following year a 
total overthrow of the Cimhri took place, in which 
140,000 were slaughtered by the Romans, and 60,000 
taken prisoners. Marius, with his colleague, Cattullus, 
then entered Rome in triumph. Sylla, who had now 
become formidable by his great victories over Mithrida- 
tes, a powerful monarch in the East, now refusing to 
obey Marius, returned to Italy, and drove him from Rome. 
Marius was afterwards taken prisoner and condemned 
to death. The executioner, who entered his dungeon, 
was so intimidated by the stern voice and countenance 
of the fallen general, who demanded, if " he dared kill 
Caius Marius," that he threw down his sword, and de- 
clared he found it impossible to kill him. The governor 
considering the fear of the executioner such an omen in 
favor of Marius, that he released him. 

103. Return of Marius to Rome. Marius having been 
released, fled to Africa, and while wandering near Car- 
thage in a melancholy manner, he received orders from 
the pretor who commanded there, to retire. He pre- 
pared to obey, and said to the messenger, " Tell your 

103. Who was Caius Marius 1 Relate his victories. Who 
drove Marius from Rome? How was the life of Marius 
Saved ■* 

103. To what place did Marius flee 1 Who was Cinna ? 
What did Marius and Cinna do ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 79 

master that you have seen AI;irius shting among the ruins 
of Carthage." Syila, having left iiome lo complete his 
eastern conquest, Clnna. a partisan of Marius, who had 
been left behind, applied to the army, which, with a gen- 
eral consent, agreed to nominate him consul, and follow 
him to Rome. While thus engaged in the cause of Ma- 
rius, tidings were brought that Marius and his son, es- 
caping from numerous perils, had returned to Italy, and 
were on the road to join him. Their army soon in- 
creased, and they entered Rome like conquerors. Their 
enemies were inhumanly sacrificed, and Rome was filled 
with blood. xMarius made himself consul, with Cinna, 
and died the month after, in a fit of debauchery, at the 
age of seventy. 

104. Sylla^ the Dictator. This bloody and revengeful 
tyrant was a Roman, of noble family. He served at first 
under Marius, and afterwards distinguished himself by 
his victories in the East. After the death of xMarius, 
Cinna having been vanquished, Sylla entered Rome with- 
out resistance. The senate and people now found that 
they had exchanged one brutal tyrant, for another still 
more bloody. He caused lists of people he disliked to 
be put up in public places, offering rewards to such as 
would kill them. These lists of proscription were daily 
renewed, and w^hoever favored a proscribed person, al- 
though his own father or brother, was himself devoted 
to death ; while those who destroyed their friends were 
rewarded. The streets were daily filled with dead 
bodies, and 7000 citizens, to whom Sylla had promised 
pardon, were suddenly massacred in the circus, and the 
insulted senate then sitting near, were compelled to hear 
their groans. Having compelled the people to appoint 
him perpetual dictator Mq continued in this office for three 
years without control, when to the astonishment of man- 
kind, he resigned it of his own accord. He retired to 

104. Who was Sylla ? What did he do to those whom he 
disliked ? To what ollice did he compel the people to appoint 
him 1 How long did he coiitniue in this of&ce \ What did \\c 
do afterwards \ 



80 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

his country-seat, where he wallowed in the most de- 
basing vices, and soon perished of a most loathsome 
and painful disease, 78 years B. C, in the 60th year of 
his age. 

105. Catiline's Conspiracy. About 63 years before 
the Christian era, a most dangerous conspiracy broke out, 
headed by Catiline, who was descended from a very il- 
lustrious patrician family of great antiquity. He had 
been brought up amid the disorders of a civil war, and 
had been the instrument of the cruelties of Sylla, to whom 
he was devoted. Destitute of morals or religion, a repu- 
ted murderer, he bore a character of the foulest infamy. 
By his extravagance he contracted vast debts, and being 
unable to pay them, he grew desperate, and aimed at 
nothing less than the highest and most lucrative employ- 
ments. For this purpose, he associated with those 
young Romans whose excesses had ruined their fortunes, 
and rendered them the contempt of every discerning per- 
son in the city. These abandoned wretches formed a 
horrid conspiracy, to murder the consuls and the greater 
part of the senators, and then seize upon the government. 
This plot was daily strengthened by the young persons 
who had been brought up in luxury, but now lacked the 
means to support their extravagances, and in hope, that 
by a revolution in the state, they should receive a share 
of the public treasure. 

106. Discovery of Catiline's Plot. Several women of 
the first families in Rome, of profligate character, were 
likewise engaged in Catiline's conspiracy. Cicero, the 
celebrated orator, then consul, found means to bribe 
Fulvia, a lady of illustrious family, whom she dishonored 
by her profligacy and intimacy with one of the chiet 
conspirators. From this woman Cicero obtained such 
information as enabled him to counteract all Catiline's 
projects. Soon after, Cicero accused Catiline, while he 

105. Who was Catiline? Describe his character. Who 
were his associates, and what conspiracy did they form 1 

106. How was Catiline's plot discovered ] By whom was 
he accused in the senate 1 What did Catiline do, and what 
became of him ] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 81 

was in the senate, of bis impious plot; but be endeavored 
t.o clear bimself of the charge. Finding be could not 
convince the senators of his innocence, he left Rome 
immediately and retired to Gaul, where his partisans 
were assembling an army. Five of the principal con- 
spirators were arrested and executed immediately. Cati- 
line having collected his partisans, was attacked by a 
superior force, and though he fought desperately, was 
killed, with all his troops. 

107. Julius Cesar and the First Triumvirate. After 
the death of Catiline, Julius Cesar rose into notice by 
his military services in various parts of the Roman em- 
pire. When a young man he was proscribed by Sylla, 
who dreaded his abilities and ambition : " There is 
many a Marius," said he, " in the person of that young 
man." Cesar, however, knowing the danger of his situa- 
tion, conducted prudently, and courted popularity with- 
out that show which gives alarm to a rival. Pompey, 
distinguished for his talents and military fame, and Cras- 
sus, for his great wealth and liberality, were competitors 
for the government. Cesar, by his address, had the 
power to reconcile these professed enemies, and to unite 
them to himself. These three men formed the design, 
in which they succeeded, of governing the state, and 
agreed that nothing should be transacted in the republic, 
without their joint approbation ; this form of govern- 
ment was called the First Triumvirate. The triumvirs 
divided the foreign provinces among themselves ; Pom- 
pey received Spain and Africa, Crassus took Syria, 
which was the richest, and Cesar took Gaul. 

108. Invasion of Britain hy Cesar. Cesar having 
conquered the numerous tribes in Gaul and Germany, 
he turned his arms towards Britain. The inhabitants at 
that time were in a barbarous state : they were, how- 
ever, brave and warlike. Landing at Deal, Cesar at- 
tacked them, but was opposed with zeal and courage. 

107. What is said of Julius Cesar? What did he do with 
regard to Pompoy and Crassus ] How was the ]''irsL Trium- 
virate formed 1 



82 AKCIENT HISTORY. 

The irregular skill and courage of these barbarians were, 
however, no match for the disciplined Roman legions ; 
Cesar defeated them, and bound them to submission 
during his absence to Gaul. After a winter's residence 
he returned to Britain with a greater force, and prose 
cuting his victories, brought a considerable part of the 
island under the Roman dominion, 54 years B. C. ii 
is related by historians, that Cesar, in his expeditions 
into Gaul, Germany, and other places, during the space 
of ten years, conquered 800 cities. He also subdued 
300 different nations or tribes, and defeated in different 
battles three millions of men ; of which about a million 
were slain in battle, and an equal number made prisoners. 
109. Rivalship between Pumpey and Cesar. Crassus, 
having been killed in the war in Syria, Pompey and 
Cesar, each aspired to the supreme command. The 
senate and nobility of Rome sided with Pompey. Cesai 
relied on his veteran troops, and the common people, 
whom he had won by his liberality. Pompey, by his 
influence with the senate, caused them to pass an order, 
commanding Cesar to disband his troops by a certain 
day. Cesar, upon this, passed the Alps, and halted at 
Ravenna, from whence he wrote to the senate, inform- 
ing them that he would lay down his command, if Pom- 
pey would do the same ; but if that general kept his 
command, he for his part knew how to maintain himself 
at the head of his legions. He concluded his letter by 
saying, " If I have not justice immediately done me, I 
will march to Rome." The senate, apprehensive of his 
designs, passed a decree, branding with the crime of 
parricide any commander who should dare to pass the 
Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and the Gauls) 
with a single cohort, without their permission. 

108. Where did Cesar land in Britain 1 What is said of the 
natives ? At what time was Britain brought under suhjection 
to the Roman power ? What is rekted of Cesar's expeditions 1 

109. Who were on the side of Pompey] On whom did 
Cesar relyl What order did the senate pass respecting 
Cesar! What reply did Cesar send the senate! What de- 
cree did the senate pass 1 



aNoIent history. 



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Cesar passing the Rubicon. 

110. Cesar'' s passage of the Rubicon. When Cesar, 
with his army, having arrived on the banks of the Rubi- 
con, he is said to have paused before passing it, imprijss- 
ed with the greatness of the enterprise, and its fearful 
consequences. " If I do not pass this river," said he to 
one of his generals, " I am ruined ; and should 1 pass it, 
what multitudes shall I ruin !" After considering a little, 
and the animosity of his enemies presenting itself to his 
mind, he plunged into the river, and cried out, " Let us 
go whither the omens of the gods, and the injustice of 
our enemies, call us. The die is cast." The army 
having crossed the Rubicon, Cesar tore his robe in the 
presence of the tribunes of the people, and implored 
the protection of his soldiers, when they all cried out 
with loud acclamations, that they were ready to die in 
the service of their general. The quickness of Cesar's 
movements astonished his enemies. Pompey not being 
in force to meet him,^fled from Rome, and Cesar, soon 
after, entered the city in triumph. 

111. Cesar's pursuit of Pompey. The monarchs in 
the East having declared for Pompey, who had fled 

110. What did Cesar say when on the banks of the Rubicon 1 
What when passino^ the river T What is said of his soldiers "^ 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

thither, he was able to collect a numerous army. His 
cause was considered that of the commonwealth, and 
he was daily joined by crowds of the most distinguish- 
ed nobles and citizens of Rome. He had at one time 
200 senators in his camp, among whom were Cicero 
and Cato, whose approbation alone was equal to a host. 
Cesar havijig defeated Pompey's lieutenants, in Spain, 
returned to Rome, where he stayed but eleven days, be- 
ing anxious to bring Pompey to a decisive engagement. 
He followed him into Greece, and did every thing to 
provoke a general battle. The hostile armies met on 
the plciins of Pharsalia. The contest was now calcu- 
lated to excite the deepest interest ; the two armies 
were composed of the best troops in the world, and 
were commanded by the two greatest generals of the 
age, and the prize contended for, was nothing less than 
the Roman empire. 

112. Battle of Pharsalia. The army of Pompey 
consisted of more than 50,000 men ; Cesar's force was 
less than half that number, but were much the best dis- 
ciplined. As the armies approached, the two generals 
rode from rank to rank to animate their soldiers. The 
signal was then given for battle, and the contest on both 
aides was long and bloody, and seemed for some time 
doubtful. Pompey's cavalry charged with great vigor, 
and obliged the enemy to give ground. Cesar instantly 
advanced with his reserved corps, who attacking Pom- 
pey's troops with their pikes, threw them into the great- 
est disorder. Cesar pursued his advantage with so 
much vigor, that the army of Pompey was entirely rout- 
ed. The battle lasted from early in the morning till 
noon. Cesar lost but 1 ,200 men, while the loss of Pom- 
pey was 15,000 killed, and 24,000 prisoners. Cesar, 

111. Where did Pompey collect an army ? By whom was 
he joined ! Where did Cesar follow Pompey ? Where did 
the hostile armies meet, what is said of them, and for what 
did they contend 1 

112. What was the force of Pompey, and oF Cesar 1 Give 
an account of the battle, and the losses on each side. What 
was the conduct of Cesar after the battle] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 85 

on this occasion, showed his usual clemency, humanity, 
and moderation. He set at liberty the Roman knights 
and senators, and incorporated into his army most of the 
prisoners. The baggage of Pompey was brought to him, 
containing numerous letters of his enemies, which, 
without opening them, he threw into the fire. 

113. Death of Pompey. Fleeing from the field of 
battle, Pompey found means to escape to Lesbos^ where 
he had left his wife, Cornelia, who, expecting her hus- 
band as master of the world, was told, that if she wished 
to see Pompey with one ship, and that not his own, she 
must hasten. Their meeting was tender and distress- 
ing. With one small galley they embarked for Egypt, 
to seek the protection of Ptolemy, whose father Pompey 
had befriended. The ministers of the young king wish- 
ing to court the favor of Cesar, basely proposed to re- 
ceive and murder their guest. Accordingly, a boat was 
sent to the galley, as if to take him on shore. Cornelia, 
looking after him, as the boat moved onward, saw the 
assassin stab him through the body, and her shriek of 
agony was heard upon the shore. The murderers cut 
off his head, and threw his body on the sand: his freed- 
man burnt it and buried the ashes, over which the fol- 
lowing inscription was afterwards placed : " He whose 
merits deserve a temple, can now scarce find a tomb." 
Cesar, who pursued Pompey to Egypt, had the head of 
his rival presented to him, but he turned his face from 
it with horror, and ordered a splendid monument to be 
erected to his memory. 

114. Cesar's Expedition into Egypt. At the time 
Cesar was in Egypt, the throne of that country was 
claimed by both Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated 
Cleopatra. The claims of Ptolemy had been upheld 
by the Roman Senate, and Cleopatra banished. She 
now laid her claim be'fore Cesar, who, captivated by her 
charms, decided the contest in her favor. A war en- 

113. Where did Pompey flee 1 Relate the manner of his 
death. What did Cesar do after the death of" Pompey 1 

1 14. What is said of Egypt ] What of Cleopatra ] What 

8 



8 > ANCIENT HISTORY. 

sued, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and Egypt sub- 
mitted to the Lloman arms. Cesar for a while aban- 
doned himself to pleasure, in company with Cleopatra, 
but was aroused by intelligence of the revolt of Phar- 
naces, the son of Mithridates, and some of the Asiatic 
provinces. Cesar subdued him with the greatest ease, 
and in his letter to the Roman senate, he expressed the 
rapidity of his conquest in three words : T^em, vidi, vici, 
that is, " I came, I saw, I conquered." 

115. Death of Cato. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
the remaining followers of Pompey, under Scipio, Cato, 
Juba, and otiiers, retired to Africa. A kind of senate 
was formed at Utica, and a little body of people collected, 
to whom Cato gave laws. Cesar sent an army into that 
country, and entirely defeated their military force. Cato 
at first intended to have stood a siege at Utica, but find- 
ing the inhabitants could not be relied upon, he changed 
his resolution, and advised his friends either to escape 
by sea, or submit to the mercy of Cesar. He embraced 
them with much tenderness, and discoursed on moral 
subjects, of which this was the theme : " The virtuous 
are the only happy and free, and the wicked are ever 
wretched and slaves." He afterwards laid himselt 
down, and with deep attention read Plato's Dialogue on 
the Immortality of the Soul. He requested that his 
sword might be brought to him; his friends implored 
him not to lay violent hands on himself, but continue 
among them as their guardian and protector. On re- 
ceiving his sword, he said, "I am now my own master." 
He then read the book twice over, and fell into a sound 
sleep. Upon waking, he made some inquiries respect- 
ing his friends : he then retired to a room alone and 
stabbed himself : the wound not being immediately fatal, 
was sewed up ; but Cato coming to himself, tore open 
the wound with indignation, and expired. This event 
finished Cesar's war in Africa. 



did Cesar do 1 State the expression he used in regard to his 
con(iaests. • 

1 15. At what place was a new senate formed ] What did 
Cato do 'i Relate the manner of his death. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 87 

116. Triumphs of Cesar. The war in Africa being 
ended, Cesar returned to Rome, and celebrated a mag- 
nificent triumph, which lasted four days. The first was 
for Gaul ; the second for Egypt ; the third for his vic- 
tories in Asia ; and the fourth for his victories over 
Juba and Cato. He rewarded his soldiers with great 
liberality, and treated the people with rare and expen- 
sive shows ; and to remove every cause of jealousy, he 
bestowed the honors of the state on Pompey's friends, 
equally with his own adherents. By these means he 
became popular, and the multitude cheerfully yielded 
up their liberties to their great enslaver. After the final 
overthrow of Pompey's party in Spain, he was hailed 
as the " Father of his country." The senate and peo- 
ple vied with each other in acts of servility and flat- 
tery ; he was made a consul for ten years, created per- 
petual dictator, received the title of Imperator, or Empe- 
ror, and his person was declared sacred. 

117. Cesar's Administration a?id Improvements. Find- 
ing himself in peace, Cesar turned his attention to the 
improvement of his empire. He labored to reform 
abuses, and introduced order into all departments of 
state. He affected moderation in the enjoyment of his 
power, though he was evidently eager of its possession ; 
he however turned it to a good account. He adorned 
Rome with magnificent buildings, drained the Pontine 
marshes, and improved the navigation of the Tiber. 
He also reformed the calendar, and with the assistance 
of the most able astronomers, regulated the year ac- 
cording to the course of the sun. Two months were 
added to the calendar, and the whole year divided into 
365 days. He also added one day to every fourth year, 
in the month of February, and that year v/as named 
Bissextile, or leap year. The reckoning of time from 
his regulation, was called the Julian account of time. 

1 16. Relate the different triumphs Cesar celebrated. How 
did he treat the people ? What title did he receive ? 

117. To what did Cesar turn his attention"? What did he 
do with regard to the ca] gndar 1 



88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

1 1 8. Conspiracy a*yaiiist Cesar. Though many of the 
people fek greatly obliged to Cesar for his clemency 
and liberality, yet they detested the name of king — a 
title they thought be was about to assuuie. The fresh 
honors which the senate continued to heap upon hira. 
excited tbe envy and jealousy of his enemies. A con- 
spiracy was now formed against him by no less than 
sixty senators, in order to put him to death. At the 
head of it were Brutus and Cassius, men whose lives 
had been spared by Cesar, at the battle of Pharsalia. 
Cesar loved Brutus, loaded him with favors, and adopted 
him as his son. Brutus, though " loving Cesar much, 
loved Kome more ;" and being guided by what he be- 
lieved would be for his country's good, joined the con- 
spirators. Cassius thirsted for revenge against an en- 
vied and hated superior. The conspirators deferred the 
execution of their plot till the ^'Ides of March" a day 
on which it was supposed that Cesar would be declared 
king. 

119. Assassination of Cesar. The Ides of March 
having arrived, Cesar, while proceeding to the senate- 
house, met the augur, who had forewarned him of the 
dangers of that day. " The Ides of March are come," 
said Cesar. " True," replied the augur, " but they are 
not yet past." As soon as he had taken his place in 
the senate, the conspirators came near, under the pre- 
tense of saluting him, and presenting petitions. On a 
signal agreed upon, the conspirators all drew their 
swords and rushed upon him. Cesar defended himself 
with great vigor, till seeing Brutus among the assail- 
ants, he uttered the exclamation, "And you, too, my son 
Brutus ;" when, muffling up his face with his robe, he 
sunk down near the statue of Pompey and expired, 
having received 23 wounds. Thus fell Julius Cesar, 

118. What excited a conspiracy against Cesar? Who 
were the conspirators] When did they intend to execute 
their plot ? 

119 What is said respecting the augur? Relate the cir- 
cumstances of Cesar's deatli. At what age and at what time \ 
was he assassinated '' 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 09 

the master of the world, in the 56th year of his age, 
14 years after he commenced his career of conquests 
in Gaul, and 44 years before the commencement of the 
Christian era. 

120. Speech of Antony. Flight of the Conspirators. 
The Roman people were struck with horror at the mur- 
der of Cesar. Although he had made himself master of 
their lives and liberties, he was generally popular. 
Mark Antony, Cesar's friend, who was at that time con- 
sul, summoned the senate. The two parties of which it 
was composed, agreed that no inquiry should be made 
concerning Cesar's death, and that his funeral should be 
performed at the public expense. Antony, who was se- 
lected to deliver the funeral oration, artfully exerted the 
whole power of his eloquence to work on the passions 
of the multitude. He read Cesar's will in the presence 
of the people, in which it was discovered that he had left 
to every Roman citizen a considerable legacy. He then 
displayed his bloody robe, and his image in wax, in which 
were discovered the 23 wounds received at his death. 
When he found the people agitated with grief and anger, 
he swore by the gods of Rome to avenge his death, and 
conjured the people to favor him in doing his duty. The 
populace were now inflamed with rage and indignation 
against the conspirators, who, to escape from their fury, 
fled from Rome. 

121. Second Triu?nvirate. Cesar, by his will, had ap- 
pointed Octavius, his sister's grandson, his heir, who ar- 
rived at Rome soon after his uncle's death. Availing 
himself of his titles, Octavius gained the senate to his in- 
terest, and divided with Antony the favor of the people. 
The difference between these rivals being settled, it was 
agreed to admit Lepidus, the governor of Gaul, and pos- 
sessor of immense riches, to a share of the government. 
These three persons invested themselves with the su- 

120. What is said of Mark Antony 1 Relate the circum- 
stances of his funeral oration. How were the people affected ] 

121. Who formed the second triumvirate] How long did 
they have the supreme command 1 What did they do \ 

8* 



90 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

prerae power for five years, and thus formed the second 
triumvirate. They divided among themselves the prov- 
inces, and agreed that all their enemies should be de- 
stroyed ; and each sacrificed his friends to the vengeance 
of his associates. Antony consigned to death his uncle ; 
Lepidus, his brother ; and Octavius, his guardian and his 
friend, Cicero.^ the celebrated orator In this horribl(3 
proscription, 300 senators and 3,000 knights were put to 
death. 

122. Death of Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Oc- 
tavius having deluged Rome with blood, now turned their 
arms against Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to Greece, 
and raised an army of 100,000 men, to restore the com- 
monwealth. The two armies met near Philippi, and af- 
ter a dreadful conflict of two days, the fate of the empire 
was decided by the total defeat of the republican army. 
Brutus and Cassius, the last Roman republicans, seeing 
all M^as lost, stabbed themselves, it is said, by the same 
weapons with which they had killed Cesar. The head 
of Brutus was sent to Rome, and laid at the foot of Ce- 
sar's statue ; tds wife, Portia, the daughter of Cato, hear- 
ing of his death; determined not to survive him, and when 
every weapon was removed from her reach, killed her- 
self by swallowing burning coals. 

123. Antony and Cleopatra. Antony, when at Tar- 
sus, summoned Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, to answer 
for her conduct in poisoning an infant brother, and fa- 
voring the party of Brutus and Cassius. Cleopatra came 
to Tarsus in a galley decorated with gold ; the sails 
were made of purple silk, and the oars were inlaid with 
silver. A pavilion of cloth of gold, was raised upon the 
deck, under which appeared the queen, robed like Venus, 
and surrounded by the beautiful young women of her 
court, representing Nymphs and Graces. Incense was 

122. Where did Brutus and Cassius flee to ^ Who was de- 
feated at Philippi ? What became of Brutus and Cassius ] 

123. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra before him ? 
Relate the circumstances of her voyage. What is said of An- 
tony ? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 91 

burnt on deck : the oars kept time to soft and delightful 
music, and the whole scene was enchanting, Antony 
was conquered : he forgot to decide upon her cause, gave 
up the pursuit of ambition, neglected all his atfairs, and 
abandoned himself to pleasure with the beautiful and li- 
centious queen. He lavished on her the provinces of 
the empire, for which he was declared an enemy to the 
Roman people. 

124. Death of Antony and Cleopatra. Antony hav- 
ing divorced his wife, Octavia, the sister of Octavius, war 
was declared against him. In the struggle between An- 
tony and Uctavius, the strength of the East and West 
was arrayed against each other. Antony's lieet consist- 
ed of 500 ships. Octavius had but half the number of 
ships, but they were better built and manned. The hos- 
tile tleets came to a decisive engagement, near Actiu?n, 
on the coast of Epirus. Victory was sometime doubtful, 
till Cleopatra fled, withthe Egyptian squadron, in the heat 
of the engagement. Antony abandoned the rest of the 
fleet, and Ibilowed her to Alexandria. Here the base 
Cleopatra betrayed the cause of Antony, who killed him- 
self in despair. Octavius was desirous of conveying 
Cleopatra to Rome, in order to grace his triumph ; but 
she prevented it by causing herself to be bitten by an 
asp. From her death, Egypt became a Roman prov- 
ince, 30 years before the Christian era. 

125. Reign of Octavius, or Augustus Cesar. The 
battle of Actium decided the fate of the commonwealth ; 
and Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the 
Roman empire. He wisely avoided the vain show of 
power, and it was his policy to change the nature, rather 
than the form of government. He had the address to 
rule as a king, and yet preserve the appearance of a re- 
publican. The empire embraced the best part of Eu- 
rope, Asia, and Africa. The revenues were immense, 
and a great army was kept on foot, distributed in the va- 

124. What is said of the struggle between Antony and Oc 
tavius ^ What of the engagement near Actium'? What be- 
came of Antony and Cleopatra 1 



i^2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

rious provinces. The emperor and his chief counsel- 
lors were eminent patrons of learning and the arts. The 
Augustan age of Roman literature, lias been the admi- 
ration of all succeeding ages. In token of universal 
peace, the temple of Janus was shut. In the 26th year 
of the reign of Augustus, and according to the best au- 
thorities, four years before the time assigned for the 
Christian era, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was 
born at Bethlehem in Judea. 

126. Character and Education of the Romans. The 
Romans under their kings, and in the first ages of the 
republic, were distinguished for their Adrtuous and rigid 
severity of manners. The private life of the citizens 
was frugal, temperate and laborious. The Roman moth- 
ers bestowed the utmust attention to the formation of the 
mind and character of their offspring. They esteemed 
this duty sacred ; and these, with the necessary occupa- 
tions of their household, the highest traits of female merit. 
Next to the care bestowed on the morals of their chil- 
dren, a great degree of attention was given to their lan- 
guage, that they might speak correctly ; and the honors 
of the state were given to those who distmguished them- 
selves by their eloquence. The exercises of the body 
were also strictly attended to, in order to endure fatigue, 
and confer strength and agility. It was owing to the 
virtuous and manly principles which were instilled into 
the minds of the Roman youth, that all the greatness 
and prosperity of Rome is to be ascribed. 

127. Industry of the illustrious Rornans. The first 
magistrates and generals cultivated their fields and 
thrashed their grain with their own hands. Cincinnatus, 
the saviour of his country, was taken from the plough, 
when chosen dictator. Marcus Curius, who drove 
Pyrrhus out of Italy, was possessed of but one small 

125. What, is said of Octaviusl What of the state of the 
empire 1 At what period was our Saviour born 1 

126. State the character of the Romans durmgthe first pe- 
riods of their national existence. To what is their greatness 
and prosperity to be ascribed *? 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 93 

farm, which he cultivated himself. The elder Cato, 
who rose to all the honors and offices of the state, went 
to work in the fields with his slaves, and sat at the same 
table and partook of the same food. Scipio Africanus^ 
after having defeated four of the Carthaginian generals, 
conquered the great Hannibal, and rendered Carthage 
tributary to Rome, labored on his farm. The celebrated 
Lucrelia, a noble Roman lady, employed herself in spin- 
ning with her female servants. Probity, simplicity, and 
the love of labor, were virtues as common at that period 
as they were rare in succeeding ages. 

128. Religion. The religion of the Romans was 
nearly the same as that of the Greeks. Their priests 
did not form a distinct order of the state, but were se- 
lected from the most honorable citizens. The priests 
were of two kinds — those that were common to all the 
gods, and those that were appointed to the service of 
some particular divinity ; as, the " priest of Jupiter," 
the " Vestal virorins," who guarded the sacred fire in the 
temple of Vesta. There were also priests appomted to 
preside over feasts, processions, &c. The pontijices, 
fifteen in number, were judges in sacred things, and di- 
rected what should be done in cases where there was 
no law. The pontifex maximus was the supreme arbiter, 
or high priest. There were also fifteen priests, whose 
office it was to keep the Sibylline books, in which it 
was said the future history of Rome was written. 
These books were obtained in the time of Tarquin the 
Proud, from a Sibyl, or woman supposed to be inspired. 
They were kept in a stone chest, under the capitol, and 
consulted in times of great calamity. 

129. Government. The government among the Ro- 
mans was at first a monarchy, next a republic, in which 

127. What is said of the first Roman magistrates and gene- 
rals ? What of Cincinnatus ] Marcus Curius? The elder 
Cato "? Scipio Africanus, and Liicretial 

128. What is said of the religion of the Romans^ Of their 
priests'! Who were the Vestal viigins ? The Pontifieesl 
Who the pontifex maximus ? What is said of the Sibylhne 
books 1 



94 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

the aristocratic power prevailed. This power was final- 
ly overthrown by the people, who became corrupt. A 
state of anarchy prevailed, which, according to the com- 
mon course of thino-s, settled down to a despotism, un- 
der the Cesars. The kings of Rome were not abso- 
lute or hereditary, but limited and elective. They could 
not enact laws, make war or peace, without the consent 
of the senate and people. Their badges were a white 
robe, a golden crown, and an ivory scepter. They sat 
in a chair of state, made or adorned with ivory, and 
"were attended by twelve lictors. or officers, carrying 
fasces, which were a bundle of rods, with an ax in the 
center. The consuls, after the banishment of the kings, 
were put into their places, to perform the duties of roy- 
alty. They were two in number, and held their office 
for one year. At first, they had the same badges of 
authority, excepting the crown. 

130. Roman Srnators. The senate was composed of 
100 old men, and afterwards of 200 or more. They 
were the council of the king, and by them most of the 
business of the state was transacted. They were at 
first nominated by the kings, but were afterwards chosen 
by the consuls, and at last by the censors. They were 
distinguished by a particular dress, and had separate 
seats at the public spectacles. This body usually as- 
sembled three times a month, but were often called on 
other days for special business. On account of their 
age, gravity, and the paternal care they had of the state, 
they were called patres, or fathers. The patrician 
families were descended from these fathers. The sen- 
ate, notwithstanding many usurpations on their authori- 
ty, continued to have, on many points, great authority 
and influence, in every period of the Roman state. 



129. What were the forms of government among the Ro- 
mans 1 What power did the kings have ] What is said of 
ihe consuls 1 

130. Who formed the senate, and how were they chosen ? 
How were they distinguished, and how often did they meet ] 
What families descended from them ] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 95 

131. Other Roman Magistrates. The next in rank 
to the consuls, were the prcEtors, who took their places 
when vacant, and were appointed to administer justice, 
and call assemblies of the senate and people. They also 
presided at certain public games. Their number varied 
much towards the end of the republic, and under the 
emperors. The tribunes of the people were officers 
whose duty it was to guard and protect the plebeians, 
when the patricians became oppressive. They were 
without tribunal or guards, and without a seat in the 
senate house ; yet they had the power, by a single veto, 
to suspend or annul the decrees of the senate, and the 
decisions of the consuls. Their persons were declared 
sacred ; but their authority was confined to the limits of 
a mile from the city. They were chosen annually. 
Their number was, at the first, five, afterwards ten. 
The pro-prcBtors and the pro-consuls usually governed the 
provinces of the Roman empire. The qucBstors were 
elected by the people, to take care of the public revenue. 

132. Roman Citizens and Assemblies. The Roman 
citizens were not merely the inhabitants of Rome and 
Its environs, but the privilege of citizenship was granted 
to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to foreign cities 
and towns in the empire, and this privilege was some 
limes bought with money. The power of the people 
in Rome was expressed in their assbmblies, called the 
comitia. The comitia were summoned to pass laws, 
elect magistrates, decide concerning peace and war, 
and try persons accused of certain crimes. The comi- 
tia continued in power for upwards of 700 years, when 
that liberty was abridged by Julius Cesar, and after- 
wards by Augustus, both of whom shared with the 
people the right of creating magistrates. Tiberius 

131. Who were next in rank to the consuls'? What did 
they do 1 What was the duty of the tribunes, and what 
power had they] Who were the pro-praetors, pro-consuls, 
and quaestors 1 

13-2. Who were Roman citizens'? What is said of the 
comitia 1 How long did the comitia continue to be assembled ? 



96 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Cesar deprived the people altogether of the right of 
election. 

133. Arts and Sciences. During the first ages of 
the Roman republic, they were without all the elegant 
improvements of life. War, politics, and agriculture, 
were the only arts they studied, because they were the 
only arts they esteemed ; and, though a sensible and 
energetic people, they were rude and illiterate. But, 
upon the downfall of Carthage, the Romans, having no 
enemy to dread from abroad, felt secure; and having 
leisure, they began to cultivate the arts. When they 
conquered Greece, it put them at once into the posses- 
sion of every thing rare, curious, or elegant, in the arts 
and sciences. Asia, which they next conquered, of- 
fered all its stores ; and the Romans, from being the 
most simple, soon became acquainted with the arts, the 
luxuries and refinements of the whole earth. 

134. Roman Poets, Historians, <Sfc. Virgil, called 
the "prince of the Latin (or Roman) poets," was born 
near Mantua, about 70 years B. C. He was well skilledl 
in all the various branches of learning. Notwithstand- 
ing he was the pride and admiration of the Roman 
people, he was uncommonly modest and bashful. When 
about the age of forty-five, he began his most celebrated 
work, the jEncad, a poem, in twelve books, which en- 
gaged his attention for eleven years. It has for its 
subject the settlement of ^neas, in Italy, after his 
flight from Troy. Virgil died before he had corrected 
it, and ordered it to be burnt ; but this was prevented 
by Augustus, the Roman emperor. The Georgics, said 
to be the most perfect and finished of all Latin compo- 
sitions, was a poem of Virgil, in four books, and treats 
principally of agricultural pursuits. 

133. What were the arts the Romans studied at the first? 
When did they begin to cultivate the arts 1 

134. What is said of Virgil ? What was his most celebra- 
ted work, and what was its subject 1 What is said of the 
Georgics ? Who was Horace, and for what was he distin- 
guished ? What is said of Livy 1 Sallust 1 Tacitus ] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 97 

Horace, a celebrated poet, received instruction from 
the best masters in Rome ; after which, he completed 
his education in Athens. He followed Brutus from 
Athens ; but after the battle of Philippi, he abandoned the 
military life, and returned to Rome, where he devoted 
himself to literature and poetry. He is distinguished 
for his Odes and Satires, and was an Epicurean in sen- 
timent. He was the companion of Virgil, and died 
eight years before Christ. 

Livy, the first of Roman historians, was born at Pa- 
dua. The work which has brought his name down to 
all succeeding ages, is his history of the Roman em- 
pire. This originally consisted of 142 books, of which 
only thirty-five remain. The loss of the others is irrepara- 
ble. His history everywhere bears marks of probity, 
integrity, and impartiality. He died about 17 years 
after the Christian era. 

Sallust was a Roman senator, and, by embracing the 
cause of Cesar, was made governor of Numidia, in Af- 
rica. He composed a history of Rome, of which only a 
few fragments remain. His only compositions extant are 
his history of Catiline's conspiracy, and the wars of Ju- 
gurtha, king of Numidia. No one was better acquainted 
with the vices which prevailed in Rome during his time, 
and no one condemned them more severely, although. 
d vicious man himself. He died about 35 years B. C. 

Tacitus was born about 60 years after the Christian 
era. He wrote the history of some of the Roman em- 
perors, who were the most cruel and abandoned tyrants 
that every disgraced the human race. Among other 
works, one respecting the Germans is very valuable ; 
and his writings abound with just sentiments. 

Pliny the Elder, and the Younger, were also histori- 
ans of note, after the Christian era. 

135. Cicero, the Roman Orator. Marcus TuUius Ci- 
cero, one of the greatest orators of antiquity, was born 
about 107 years B. C. His father was a Roman knight, 
and took great care of his education. He was naturally 
of a weak and delicate constitution and he visited Greece 
9 



yy ANCIENT HISTORY. 

on account of his health. On his return, he soon distin- 
guished himself above all the speakers of that age, and 
was raised to offices of dignity. One of his most cele- 
brated orations was against Verrcs, who had been praetor 
in Sicily, where he was guilty of rapine and cruelty. 
When in the office of consul, he had the skill and address 
to suppress the horrid conspiracy of Catiline ; and for 
this great service, he was honored with the title of the 
father of his comitry, and " second founder of Rome." 
In the great contest between Cesar and Pompey, he joined 
the latter, and after the battle of Pharsalia, returned to 
Rome, and was received into favor by Cesar. When 
the triumvirs succeeded to the government of Rome, 
after the death of Cesar, Cicero was proscribed. As 
he was fleeing in a litter towards the sea, he was over- 
taken, beheaded, and his head and right hand carried to 
Rome. 

136. Domestic Life and Manners. At the period when 
the Roman empire was fully established, the day was 
spent, in Rome, by the higher and lower ranks of the 
people, as follows : the morning was devoted to visiting 
the temples, and attending the levees of the great, and 
the patricians visited each other. From the levee, they 
proceeded to the forum, either for business or pleasure. 
At noofi, the hour of dinner, they partook of a slight 
repast, and of which it was not customary to invite any 
guests to partake. After dinner, the youths repaired to 
the Campus Martins, where they engaged in athletic 
exercises and sports till sunset. The elder class retired 
an hour to repose, and then passed the afternoon in lite- 
rary and other conversation with their friends : others 
went to the theaters, or to the shows of the circus or 
amphitheater. After these occupations, it was customa- 
ry to go to the baths. From the bath they went im- 
mediately to supper, which was their principal meal, 

I35r. Who was Cicero 1 When consul, what conspiracy 
did he suppress ! Relate the manner of his death. 

136. How was the day spent in Rome by the people? Af- 
ter dinner what was done ? When was their principal meal ] 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 99 

and taken about the ninth or tenth hour, counting from 
sunrise. They sometimes partook of a portion of food 
in the morning and after supper, but it was not consid- 
ered a regular meal. 

137. Diet, and Luxurious Habits. The diet of the 
earlier Romans consisted of milk and vegetables, with a 
coarse kind of pudding, which served for bread. They 
rarely indulged in meat, and wine was almost unknown. 
But when they became rich, by the conquest of other 
nations, their vices and luxurious habits were introduced. 
The luxury of the Roman suppers far exceeded every 
thing known among the moderns. Cookery became a 
science, and the number and costliness of the dishes 
was scarcely credible. All parts of the empire were 
ransacked, and no expense was spared to gratify the 
appetite, and many things were esteemed only in pro- 
portion to their cost. Thus the tongues and brains of 
Maltese cranes, peacocks, and rare singing birds, &c., 
were esteemed great delicacies, and were procured at an 
enormous expense. Gluttony was sometimes carried 
to such an excess, that emetics were taken, to throw ofl' 
from the stomach one full meal, in order to make room 
for another. 

138. Public Amusements. Theatrical amusements, 
though condemned by the early Romans, at length be- 
came popular. There were many public games con- 
nected with their religion, where much licentiousness 
was allowed ; the shows exhibited in the circus were 
contests of strength and agility, mock fights, combats of 
wild beasts, chariot and horse-races. Criminals Here 
condemned to fight with wild beasts ; others did so for 
hire. Great numbers of lions, leopards, bears, and ele- 

137. What was the diet of the earlier Romans ? What was 
it when they became rich \ To what an extent was their 
gluttony sometimes carried ? 

138. What is said of the theatrical amusements of the Ro- 
mans "? Their public games ? Shows exhibited m the circus, 
and the gladiatorial shows ? What is said of Trajan 1 Of the 
coliseum I 



100 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

phants, wero sent from the provinces, for the amuse- 
ment of the people. Pompey, on one occasion, treated 
them with the spectacle of 500 lions, which were dis- 
patched in five days. The gladiatorial shows had great 
a tractions for the Romans. Not only the populace, but 
senators, and Roman ladies of distinction, were eager 
to behold these brutal scenes. The gladiators were 
persons who fought with weapons, in a public circus, or 
amphitheater, for the gratification of the audience. 
Great numbers of men were killed on these occasions. 
Trajan, the emperor, exhibited games for one hundred 
and twenty-three days, when 10,000 wild beasts were 
killed, and 10,000 gladiators fought. Amphitheaters 
were erected for the convenience of the spectators, one 
of the most celebrated of which was the Coliseum, being 
capable of containing 100,000 persons. The ruins of 
this structure are still to be seen. 

139. Military Affairs. The education of the Ro- 
mans, and all their institutions, were calculated to en- 
courage a military spirit. It was their perfect discipline, 
making a great multitude act as one man, that rendered 
their armies victorious. The Roman legion, so celebra- 
ted for its arrangement and discipline, varied at dilTerent 
periods from 3,000 to 1 1 ,000 men. The legion, when 
in order of battle, was drawn up in three lines : the first 
consisted chiefly of young men ; the second line was 
formed of men of middle aaje ; the third line consisted 
of veterans of tried valor. The men in the first two lines 
were armed with a heavy javelin, or spear, about six 
feet in length, a sword, and a shield. The head of the 
javelin consisted of a point of steel, of a triangular shape, 
18 inches in length, and was commonly thrown from 8 
to J 2 yards distance, and was a terrible weapon in the 
hand of a Roman. When these were discharged, they 

138. What made the Roman armies victorious I What is 
said of the Roman legion ? Describe the javelin. What is 
said of the light-armed troops I State the manner of besieging 
fortified places. What is said of the art of intrenchment ? . 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 101 

rushed upon the enemy with two-edged swords. Those 
in the third Hue were armed with a long spear, sword, 
and buckler. 

The light-armed troops used slings, hows and arrows, 
and threw light javelins. They advanced before the 
rest of the army, and annoyed the enemy as much as 
possible : they retired on the approach of the main body, 
and rallied in their rear. A body of cavalry was at- 
tached to each legion. 

In besieging fortified places, the Romans used the 
battering-ram, which was the mosi effective when ap- 
plied against a wall. It was formed of a long beam, 
armed at one end with iron, in the shape of a ram's 
head. It was suspended in such a manner, that 100 
men, by violently thrusting it forward, could break down 
almost any wall which it could be made to reach. 

The ait of intrenchment was carried to great perfec- 
tion, especially by Julius Cesar, who was able, with 
60,000 men, to defend himself successfully in this man- 
ner against an army of 240,000 Gauls. 

140. Milttary Triumphs. The highest military honor 
to which a Roman could attain, was the honor of a 
triumph. This was a grand solemn procession through 
the city to the capitol, granted to those generals who, 
by harJ-earned victories and great achievements, had 
added to the Roman territories, or had delivered the 
state from threatened dar^ger. The procession passed 
through the most public streets ; musicians led the way ; 
oxen, for sacrifice, with gilt horns and ribbons, and the 
priests, with their ceremonial dresses, next followed ; 
then the standards taken from the enemy ; then car- 
nages, l.iden with their arms, and spoils : the captives 
followed, in chains. Tlie triumphant general was next 
in order. He was clothed in a robe of purple and gold, 
with a crown of laurel on his head, and other decora- 

140. What was the highest military honor granted to a Ro- 
man ] Describe a triumph. How was the tri amphant general 
olothed ] 

9* 



102 ANCIENT HISTORY. 



tions. He stood in a gilded chariot, drawn by white 
horses; his friends and relatives accompanied him, and 
his principal officers were on horseback beside his 
chariot. His victorious army, also crowned with lau 
rels, came last, singing songs of victory 



MODERN HISTORY. 



PERIOD I. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY 




Emblems of Christianity. 

FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO fHE REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT 

(306 YEARS.) 

#141. The Coming of Jesus Christ. " The fullness of 
time" having arrived, Jesus Christ, the Saviour of Man- 
kind, was born in Judea# It is supposed by the learned, 
that he was born four yelrs before the common date of the 
Christian era. Our Saviour made his appearance when 
the whole world was in a state of peace, — the temple 
of Janus, in Rome, being shut, which was always open 
in time of war. P'or more than 700 years this temple 
was closed but three times. An account of the life of 
Jesus Christ and the doctrines which he taught, is given 
to us by divine inspiration, in the books of the New 
Testament. The Christian religion, under the ministry 
of the apostles, spread with great rapidity, when the 
universal wickedness of mankind is considered. The 



141. At what time is it supposed our Saviour was born? 
What was the state of the world at this time ? What is said 
respecting the coming of our Saviour ? 



104 MODERN HISTORY. 

coming of our Saviour has had an influence upon all 
civilized nations, and will alter more and more the aspect 
of all human aftairs. When the true spirit of his reli- 
gion shall universally prevail, this world will become a 
paradise. 

142. State of the Roman Empire. At the commence- 
ment of the Christian era, the Roman empire compre- 
hended most of the known world. By the conquest of 
the world, Rome was filled with the riches of the con- 
quered nations. Ambassadors from remote kingdoms 
daily arrived, to do homage, to court favor or alliance. 
With the wealth, the Romans imported the manners, 
luxuries, and vices, of the nations they subdued. The 
higher classes became indolent, proud, and ambitious ; 
the lotver classes were distinguished for a servile spirit, 
and indiflerence to the national prosperity. Many of 
the forms of a free government remained, but force and 
bribery prevailed at every election, and the populace 
took part with that candidate for office who could best 
pay for their favor and support. The Roman people 
having abandoned their virtuous principles, their liber- 
ties were of course destroyed ; and in ordei to exist as 
a nation, it was necessary to have a despotic govenl- 
ment. The history of the Romans fully shows, thai 
freedom and liberty cannot S^ist among any people 
whose morals are corrupted, whatever may be their 
forms of government. 

143. Conquest of Britain. The first authentic his- 
tory respecting Britain, commences with its invasion by 
the Romans, under Julius Cesar, bb years before the 
Christian era. Cesar, having conquered Gaul, next 
turned his arms towards Britain, the inhabitants of 

142. What was the state of the Roman empire at the com- 
mencement of the Christian era"? What is said of the higher 
and lower classes'? What of the government? What of the 
liberties of the people ] What does the history of the Romans 
show ] 

143. W^hen did Julius Cesar invade Britain I How long was 
it a Roman province "^ What is said of Caractacus ? Of Boa- 
dicea "? What did the Roman conquest introduce into Britain % 



MODERN HISTORY. 105 

which, at this period, were considered barbarians. 
When Cesar Ian led, he was opposed with great bravery 
and courage ;_but the disciplined legions of Rome were 
more tlian a match lor the irregular skill and bravery of 
savages, and most of the island, after a while, fell under 
the Roman power, and continued a Roman province for 
more than 400 years. The Britons were not, however, 
easily kept under subjection. In A. D. 51, during the 
reign of Claudius, Caractacus, a British king, having 
made a brave resistance, was carried in chains to Rome. 
Ten years after, Queen Boadicea obtained some advan- 
tages against the Romans, but was finally defeated in a 
great baitle, in which 80,000 Britons perished. The 
final conquest of Britain was accomplished by Julius 
Agricola, in A. D. 80. By the Roman conquest, the 
arts and sciences, and finally the Christian religion, 
were introduced among the Britons. 

144. Caligula and Nero. The Roman people having 
generally become corrupted, most of their rulers were of 
the same character. Some of their emperors were mon- 
sters of wickedness and cruelty. Of these, Caligula and 
Nero were the most distinguished. Caligula commenced 
nis reign with mildness and clemency, hut soon became 
proud, wanton, and cruel. He built a temple to himself, 
and ordered his head to be placed on the images of the 
gods. He appeared in public places in the most indecent 
manner, and his conduct towards his own sisters was 
most shameful. He often amused himself by putting 
innocent people to death ; and he took such delight in 
cruelty, that he wished " that all the Roman people had 
but one neck, that he might dispatch them at a single 
blow." This tyrant was murdered by his servant, 
A. D. 11, after a reign of about four years. 

Nero, like Caligula, began his reign by acts of kind- 
ness, affability, and popularity; but he soon threw oft'the 
mask. He caused to be put to death his mother, his fa- 

144. Who were Caligula and Nero ? What is said of Cali- 
gula \ Rehile his wish ] W^hat is said of Nero ! Why did 
he set Rome on firel Relate the circumstances. 



106 MODERN HISTORY. 

ther, his wife, his preceptor, and all who were distin- 
guished ibr birth, riches, courage, and virtue, who stood 
in the way of his pleasures or inclinations. In order to 
have a representation of the burning of Troy, he caused 
Rome to be set on fire in various places : the conflagra- 
tion continued for nine days, and most of the city was 
consumed to ashes. Nero, to enjoy the scene, placed 
himself in a high tower, and sang on his lyre the de- 
struction of Troy In order to avert the odium of this 
crime, he charged it upon the Christians, and caused a 
dreadful persecution against them, in which St. Paul 
was put to death. A conspiracy was formed against 
Nero, and he was condemned to death. In order to pre- 
vent his execution by his enemies, he killed himself, 
A. D. 68, in the 32d year of his age, having reigned 13 
years. 

145. Invasion of Judea. Judea became a province 
of the Roman empire about two years after the birth ot 
Jesus Christ. As the Jews rebelled on every slight oc- 
casion, Vespasian was sent by Nero into Judea with a 
powerful army, accompanied by his son Titus. Having 
conquered the most of Galilee, and while advancing upon 
Jerusalem, Vespasian heard of the death of Nero, Galba', 
and others, and of his own election to the throne. De- 
parting, therefore, for Rome, he gave orders to his son 
[0 besiege Jerusalem. Tiius lost no time in carrying 
his father's orders into ellect. Jerusalem was strongly 
fortified by nature and art. It was surrounded by three 
"vvalls, and numerous towers surmounted them, which 
were high and strong. The circumference was nearly 
four miles. Titus was desirous of saving the city ; but 
all his offers of peace were scornfully rejected. He 
then entered upon the siege, and determined not to leave 
it till he had razed the city to its foundations. 

146. Siege of Jerusalem. When Titus laid siege to 
Jerusalem, A. I), 70, the city was full of inhabitants, by 
reason of the many thousands who had come there from 

145. When did Judea become a Roman province ] Who 
was sent to invade Judea 1 What is said of Jerusalem ^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 107 

distant parts, to keep the passover. The city was well 
supplied with provisions and men, and being strongly- 
fortified, it was, to appearance, well able to resist every 
effort of its enemies. But the " days of vengeance," 
foretold by divine inspiration, were now at hand. The 
city was filled with tumult, disorder, and contention, 
and when the Jews were not fighting the Romans from 
their walls, they were killing each other. In their rage 
and madness, they burned each other's store-houses, 
which were full of provisions. This produced such a 
famine, that the inhabitants were compelled to eat old 
shoes, leather, carrion, &c., and thousands perished of 
hunger. A Jewish lady suffered so extremely by hun- 
ger that she killed her son, and ate his flesh."^ After a 
blockade of six months, Jerusalem was taken by storm, 
the temple, the pride of the Jewish nation, was reduced 
to ashes, and the city buried in ruins. It is estimated that 
upwards of a million of the Jews perished in the siege. 
147. Dispersion of the Jews. From the destruction 
of Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews have been scattered, 
according to the prediction of Moses, from one end of 
the earth to the other. From this period they have 
been " without a king, without a prince, and without a 
sacrifice and altar." After Jerusalem was destroyed, 
Vespasian ordered all the Jewish lands to be sold for 
his own use, and imposed a tribute on all the Jews 
within the empire. Their preservation as a distinct 
people, through eighteen hundred years of awful suffer- 
ing and disgrace, a " reproach and a by-word," may be 
considered as a standing miracle in evidence of the truth 
of divine revelation. Our Saviour, in speaking of the 
Jews, declares : " They shall fall by the edge of the 
sword, and shall be led away captive into all nations, 

146. What is said of Jerusalem, when Titus laid siege to 
it? Describe the state of the city within. How was the city 
♦;aken, and how many Jews perished ? 

147. What became of the Jews, after the destruction of 
Jerusalem ? What is said of their preservation as a distinct 
people ? To what nations has Jerusalem been subjected ^ 



108 MODERN HISTORY. 

and Jerusalem shall be trodden down of the Gentiles, tili 
the time of the Gentiles be fulfilled." Jerusalem is still 
trodden down by the Gentiles. It was first in subjec- 
tion to the Romans, afterwards to the Saracens, then to 
the Franks, next to the Mamelukes, and now to the Turks. 

148. Spread of Christianity. The apostles and evan- 
gelists, as we learn from the scriptures and historical 
fragments, early went abroad among the distant nations, 
and preached the gospel to multitudes in all parts of the 
known world. The extension of the Roman empire, 
and the persecution of the Christians, were the means 
of rapidly extending the knowledge of Christianity ; so 
that, before the destruction of Jerusalem, Christianity 
was extended throughout the world. The labors and 
sufferings of the apostles, and other early Christian 
teachers, in spreading the gospel, are almost incredible ; 
and many of them lost their lives in the cause. The 
opposition the Christian religion met with, did not hin- 
der its progress. The " blood of the martyrs was the 
seed of the church." Notwithstanding all the attempts 
to put it down, it finally prevailed throughout the Roman 
empire, and reached, at last, the throne of the Cesars. 

149. Persecution of the Christians. Historians usu- 
ally reckon ten general persecutions, the first of which 
took place A. D. 64, under Nero, who, when he burnt 
the city of Rome, charged it upon the Christians. First, 
all those who openly avowed themselves Christians, 
were apprehended, and by them were discovered an 
immense multitude, all of whom were condemned. 
Their death and tortures were aggravated by cruel deri- 
sion and sport : many were torn to pieces by lions and 
other wild beasts ; some were covered with the skins oJ 
wild beasts, and torn by dogs ; others were fastened to 
crosses, and wrapped in combustible garments, which 

148. What caused the extension of Christianity ? "V^hat is 
said of the labors and sufferings of the apgstles and others 1 
What of the opposition Christianity met with ? 

149. When did the first persecution take place 1 Describe 
the manner. How loner did the last persecution continue 1 
How many perished in Egypt? 



MODERN HISTORY. 109 

were set on fire in the night, to give light to spectators. 
Nero offered his gardens for this spectacle, and ex- 
hibited at the same time the diversions of the circus. 
During a space of two centuries, in ten successive in- 
stances under the Roman emperors, these persecutions 




Martyrdom of Christians by Lions. 

were repeated, and the suffering and loss of life exceed 
calculation. The last persecution continued * for ten 
years. In Egypt alone, 144,000 Christians died by the 
violence of their persecutors, besides 700,000 who died 
through the fatigues of banishment, or the public works 
to which they were condemned. 

150. Christian Martyrs. The first Christians counted 
it an honor to suffer for their religion, and many of them 
gave up their lives with joy for the sake of their Lord. 
In one instance, the Emperor Valens gave orders to have 
the Christians in Edessa slain on a certain day, while 
they were at their devotions. The emperor's officers 
being compassionate men, gave private notice to the 
Christians not to assemble on the day appointed, so that 
they might escape death. The Christians thanked the 

150. Did the first Christians suffer willingly ] What is said 
of the Emperor Valens, and his officers ] Relate the account 
of a woman and child. 
10 



110 MODERN HISTORY. 

officers for their advice, but rather than neglect their 
duty, repaired to the church, and resolved to suffer mar- 
tyrdom. As the troops were put in motion to destroy 
them, a woman with a child in her arms broke through 
their ranks, when the officer ordered her to be brought 
before him, and asked where she was going ? She re- 
plied, " to the church, whither others were making all 
the haste they could." " Have you not heard," says 
the officer, " of the emperor's order to put to death all 
found there ?" " I have," says she, " and for that cause 
1 make the more haste." " And whither," said the of- 
ficer, " do you lead that child ?" " 1 take him," replied 
she, " with me, that he also may be reckoned among 
he martyrs." 

151. Christian Fathers. The term Fa^Aer is applied 
to those ancient authors who have preserved in their 
writings traditions of the Church ; some of the most 
distinguished were the following : Clemens Romanus, 
who was born at Rome, and a fellow-laborer with St 
Paul. He was a zealous defender of the faith, and his 
writings, which have come down to us, are esteemed 
very valuable. 2d. Ignatus, the bishop of Antioch, wrote 
a number of epistles to the churches. In A. D. 107, he 
M'^as sent to Rome by Trajan, thrown to wild beasts and 
devoured. 3d. Poly carp, a companion of Ignatus, was 
a pastor of the church in Smyrna for eighty years , he 
also suffered martyrdom at Rome. 4th. Justin Martyr, 
distinguished for his powers and learning, was born in 
Palestine. He wrote two apologies, or defences of Chris- 
tianity, addressed to the Roman emperor and senate ; 
he also fell a martyr, by being beheaded. He was con- 
verted to Christianity about A. D. 132. 5th. Ircnccus, a 
Greek, employed his pen principally against heretics : 
five of his books remain. He suffered death A. D. 202. 
6th. Clemens Alexandrius, was born as Alexandria, in 

151. To whom is the term Father applied 1 What is said oi 
Clemens Romanus "? Of Ignatus 1 Polycarp. Justin Martyr, 
Irenaeus, Clemens Alexandrius, Tertullian, Origen, Cyprian, 
Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and John Chrysostom ? 



MODERN HISTORY. Ill 

I he second century: three of his works are existing. 
7th. Tcrtullian was by birth a Carthaginian, and was 
distinguished for his great learning. 8th. Origen was 
born at Alexandria, A. D. 185. He was the author of 
numerous works. 9th. Cy^na^i, the bishop of Carthage, 
was distinguished as an orator. 10th. Ambrose was 
born in Gaul, A. D. 333, and was bishop of Milan. 
11th. Jerome translated the bible into Latin: lie died 
near Jerusalem, A. D. 420. 12ih. August i?ie was horn 
in Africa ; his writings formed a body of divinity, which 
was in use for a number of centuries in the Christian 
church: he died A. D. 430. 13th. John Chrysostom 
was born at Aiitioch, A. D. 354. He was elected bish- 
op'of Constantinople, and was considered one of the 
ablest of preachers. 

152. Trajan, the Emperor. Trajan, who was a native 
of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one of the greatest and 
most virtuous of the Roman emperors. He was the 
greatest general of his age, and accustomed himself to 
hardships ; he often marched at the head of his troops 
on foot, over extensive regions. He was distinguished 
^or his aflfability, his simplicity of manners, and his mer- 
ciful and generous disposition. The senate conferred 
on him the title of Optimus, or best, and for more than 
200 years they hailed every new emperor with the ex- 
clamation : " Reign fortunately, as Augustus, and virtu- 
ously, as Trajan." During his reign the boundaries of 
the Roman empire were more extensive than either before 
or afterwards. He subdued the Dacians, a nation north of 
the Danube, and in commemoration of this event a stately 
column was erected, which is still to be seen in Rome, 
and is one of the most remarkable ancient monuments 
in the city. He died in A. D. 117, after a reign of up- 
wards of 10 years, aged 62. 

153. Successors of Trajan. Trajan was succeeded 
by Adrian, his nephew. This emperor undertook to 

152. What is said of Trajan 1 What exclamation did the 
senate use ] What nation did Trajan conquer ] What is said 
of the column commemorating this event ? 



112 MODERN HISTORY. 

visit all the provinces of the empire : ir this expedition 
he spent thirteen years. While in Briiain he erected a 
turf wall across the island, to protect the Britons from 
the incursion of the Picts. In his progress he reformed 
abuses and rebuilt cities. He was succeeded by A7itn- 
nius Pius, who reigned 23 years, and was distinguished 
for his public and private virtues. His successor was 
his son-in-law, Marcus Aurclius Antonius,surnamed the 
Philosopher. He is esteemed the best model of pagan 
virtue among the Roman emperors ; he reigned about 19 
years, and died A. D. 169. From this period the em- 
perors were, with a few exceptions, either weak or vi- 
cious, and some of them monsters of cruelty. The em- 
pire was too large to be governed properly ; barbarous 
and successful enemies began to oppose them from with- 
out, while they were torn by cruel factions within. Patri- 
otisjn, virtue, and the sciences, were almost extinct. 

154. Partition of the Empire. Diocletian, the Roman 
emperor, began his reign A. D. 284, and two years after- 
wards he admitted to the government of the empire his 
general, Maximian. About eight years from this time 
they took two colleagues, Galerius and Constantiiis, and 
bestowed upon each the title of Cesar. This was a 
novel state of things ; the empire was in four divisions 
with two emperors and two Cesars, each nominally su- 
preme. Diocletian, however, was the master-spirit thai 
controlled the whole. In this state the government was 
administered for a few years, when the two emperors 
vohmtarily rosigrned their authority into the hands of the 
two Cesars. Diocletian retired to his native country, 
Dalmatia, where he built a palace and amused himself 
in cultivating his garden. He declared he enjoyed more 
happiness in his quiet retirement, than when he was 
emperor of the world. 

155. Constantine, the first Christian Emperor. On 

153. Who was Adrian "? What is said of Marcus Aurelius 
Antoniusi What of the emperors who succeeded him ? 

154. How did Diocletian manage the government of Rome'' 
What farther is said of Diocletian 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 113 

the death of Maximian, who had resumed the throne, 
Constantine, the son of Constantius, had no other com- 
petitor than Maxentius ; the contest between these two 
was decided by the sword — Maxentius perished, and 
Constantine remained sole master of the empire. It is 
related by historians, that when Constantine was march- 
iug at the head of his army against Maxentius, he saw 
the appearance of a cross in the heavens, inscribed with 
these words, '^''By this conquer C^ and that in consequence 
of this vision, and the success that followed his arms, 
he embraced Christianity. However this may be, Con- 
stantine became the avowed friend and supporter of 
Christianity. He put an end to the persecution of the 
Christians, also to combats of the gladiators, and other 
barbarous exhibitions ; and the Roman government, 
from being a cruel persecutor of Christianity, became its 
professed protector. 

156. Goveinment of the Emperors. After the dissolu- 
tion of the Roman republic, all the institutions of the 
government were made to support despotic authority. 
Taxes and impositions of every nature were laid and 
collected by sole authority of the emperor. The quan- 
tity and rate was fixed by a census made over all the 
provinces, and part was generally paid in money, and 
part in the produce of the lands — a burden often found 
so grievous as to put a stop to cultivation. All merchan- 
dise was also highly taxed. The government supported 
numerous spies, who conveyed all sorts of intelligence 
from the remotest parts of the empire to Rome. It is 
stated that the principal reason why the despotism of 
Nero and other monsters was so quietly borne by the 
people, lay in the fact, that a great part of them were 
fed by the emperors, from the distribution of corn, meat. 
and money, among the populace. 

155. How did Constantine obtain the mastery of the entipire 1 
What do historians relate respecting the appearance of a cross ] 
What did Constantine do? 

156. What is said of the Roman government 1 Of the tax- 
es 1 The spies '^ Why did the people endure the despotism 
of Nero and others 1 

10* 



PERIOD II. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE CONQUEST OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 




Northern Barbarians advancing upon the Roman Empire. 

j'ROM THE REIGN OF CONSTANTINE TO THE BIRTH OF MAHOMET. 

(263 YEARS.) 

157. Reign of Constantine. The Christian religion, 
which had stood the trial of ten fiery persecutions, was 
seeti at once to prevail over the whole Roman empire. 
Constantine commanded that in all the provinces the or- 
ders of the bishops should be exactly obeyed ; a privi- 
lege of which they afterwards made a bad use. By his 
order the pagan temples were demolished, or converted 
into Christian churches ; the exercise of the old priest- 
hood forbidden, and the idols destroyed. Large and 
costly buildings were erected for Christian worship. 
The clergy were honored with great favors, and enriched 
with great endowments. Many additions were made to 
the forms of w^orship — the dress )f the clergy was pomp- 
ous, and the whole of the Christian service exhibited a 
scene of worldly grandeur and parade. Constantine 

157. What did Constantine order to be done ] What is said 
of the clergy 1 Who assembled at Nice, and for what pur- 
pose \ 



MODERN HISTORY. 115 

also assembled a general council of Christian fathers, at 
Nice, in order to repress the heresies which now began 
to appear in the church. 

158. Corruption of Christianity. When the profes- 
sion of the Christian religion was attended with danger ; 
while dungeons, racks, and flames, were threatening the 
disciples of Christ, they had no source of consolation 
but in the gospel. This they found sufficient to enable 
them to meet death in all its horrid forms, and conse- 
quently their lives were pure and heavenly. But when 
a profession of Christianity was considered honorable, 
and was a means of advancement in the state, many un- 
worthy and unprincipled persons found means to intro- 
duce themselves into the church.^ The government of 
the church underwent a great change, being connected 
with the state ; the emperor assumed the title of a bishop, 
and regulated its external aflfairs. By these means, 
Christianity was degraded, and the virtues of humility, 
self-denial, and brotherly kindness, which so distinguish 
the religion of Christ, were but little knownJr 

159. Removal of the seat of the Empire from Rome to 
Constantinople. In A. D. 329, Constantino wishing to 
found a new capital, removed to Byzantium, where he 
built a capitol, an amphitheater, many churches, and 
other public works. Having dedicated that city to the 
God of martyrs, and named it after himself, he transfer- 
red his court thither, and made it the seat of government. 
By this means he made it the rival of Rome, in popula- 
tion and magnificence. From this period the two cities 
began to look upon each other with jealousy, which 
eventuated in the division of the empire into the East- 
ern and Western. Whatever might have been Constan- 
tine's motives in removing the seat of government, it 
weakened exceedingly the already tottering empire. 
By a division of the military force uiider the government 

158. W^hat effect did persecution have upon Christians \ 
How was it when the profession of (Jhristianity was honora- 
ble ? W^hat is said of the {lovernnrient of the church ? 

159. When did Constantine found a ne <v capital ? Wliat ef- 
fect did this have unon the emnire '^ 



116 MODERN HISTORY. 

of his sons, the northern barbarians, who fought with 
superior numbers, and were often defeated, began now 
to prevail against the Romans. 

160. Julian^ the Aposfale. Julian, the Roman empe- 
ror, began his reign about A. D. 360 ; he is generally 
called the apostate, because, after having received a 
Christian education, he cast off its profession, and re- 
stored the pagan worship. He was possessed of con- 
siderable talent, and of many heroic qualities, but was 
the slave of superstition, being addicted to the studies 
of magic and astrology. He endeavored to make Chris- 
tianity an object of ridicule, and those who professed it 
he removed from public offices, closed their schools, 
and took various me^ods to humble and oppress them. 
The Saviour he always distinguished by the name of 
Galilean. In a war with the Persians he was mortally 
wounded by a lance. As he was expiring, he filled his 
hand with blood, and casting it into the air, exclaimed, 
*' O, Galilean ! thou hast conquered." 

161 . j^empt to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem. Ju- 
lian, in oraer to give the lie to our Saviour's prophecy, 
attempted to restore the Jews to their city, temple, and 
worship. If he had succeeded in this object, he would 
have converted it into an argument against the truth of 
the Christian religion. He therefore resolved to erect, 
on Mount Moriah, a stately temple ; and at the call of 
their supposed great deliverer, the Jews, from all of the 
provinces of the empire, repaired to Jerusalem. Al- 
though the emperor's orders were obeyed with enthusi- 
asm by the whole people, they entirely failed of attain- 
ing their object. A heathen writer states, " while Aly- 
pius, assisted by the governor of the province, urged 
with vigor and diligence the execution of the work, hor- 
rible balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations with 
frequent attacks, drove them to a distance, and the un- 

160. Why was Julian called the apostate "? What is said 
of him 1 Relate the manner of his death. 

161. What was the object of Julian in restoring the Jews 
to their city, &c. 1 How was he prevented ] 



MODERN HISTORY. 117 

dertaking was abandoned." This remarkable event is 
fully attested by the various historians of the age. 

162. Barbarians. This name was generally applied 
by the ancient Greeks and Romans to most nations ex- 
cept their own. At the first, it was applied to those 
persons who spoke inelegantly, or with harshness and 
difficulty. The barbarians who effected the conquest 
of the Roman empire, may be divided into three classes. 
1. Those of Europe ; 2. those of Asia ; and, 3. those 
of an intermedial origin. The barbarians of Europe 
were divided into many tribes, of whom the Goths and 
Vandals were the most celebrated. The Intermrdial 
Barbarians, or the Scythians and Samaritans, were a 
mixed race of the Asiatic and European tribes ; their 
complexion, customs, and mannel-s, partook of the dif- 
ferent nations. The Barbariaris of Asia, or the Tartars, 
were of a brown complexion. They were shepherds, 
and kept constantly moving about with their cattle, and 
encamped under movable tents ; they had many wives, 
and their principal military force consisted of cavalry. 
In this class the Huns, Alains, and Turks, are generally 
placed.- 

163. Of the Goths. The name of GoM^ is generally 
given to those tribes or nations in the northern parts of 
Europe, who directed their arms against the Roman em- 
pire, and introduced disorders, anarchy, and revolutions, 
into the west of Europe. They were said to be of 
Asiatic orio^in, and were originally a colony of Scythi- 
ans, from the borders of the Black and Caspian seas. 
They established themselves in Scandiyiaoia. a name 
given by the ancients to the tract of territory which con- 
tains the modern kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, Den- 
mark, &c. From this country they are sometimes called 
Scandinavians. The modern nations of Europe are 

162. To whom was the name barbarian applied ] Who 
were the three classes that conquered the Roman enpire ? 
VVh.'it is said of them ? 

163. To what nations is the name of Gotls applied ' Why 
are they sometimes called Scandinavians 1 For what were 
the original Goths distinguished 1 



118 MODERN HISTORY. 

mostly a mixed race, compoimded of the Goths and the 
nations they conquered. The original Goths were dis- 
tinguished by a savage ferocity of manners, and their in- 
stitutions ; but as they extended their conquest their 
manners became much improved, by adopting many of 
the manners and customs of the nations they conquered. 

164. Rdiginn of the Goths, or Scandinavians. The 
Goths held to three principal doctrines of religion. " To 
serve the Supreme Being with prayer and sacrifice ; to 
do no wrong or unjust action ; and to be intrepid in fight." 
Odin, the principal deity of the Scandinavians, was rep- 
resented as a terrible and severe god, the Avenger and 
the Father of Carnage. The favorites of Odin were all 
those who die in battle, or, what is equally meritorious, 
died by their own hand. The timid wretch who allow ed 
himself to perish by disease or age, was deemed unwor- 
thy of the joys of paradise. These joys were fighting, 
ceaseless slaughter, and drinking beer out of the skulls 
of their enemies, &c. These notions had a great efl^ect 
upon their character. The Scandinavian placed his sole 
delight in war ; he entertained an absolute contempt of 
danger and death, and his glory was estimated by the 
number he had killed in battle. 

165. Vandals. The Vandals, Suevi, and others, left 
their native land, on the shores of the Baltic, at the com- 
mencement of the fifth century, and came down upon 
Italy. Here they were defeated with great slaughter. 
They then retired into Germany ; from whence the Fa«- 
dals traversed Gaul and penetrated into Spain, fixing 
themselves at first, in the southern parts ; but soon after, 
crossing the straits, they arrived in Africa, and ravaged 
the Roman provinces. They founded a kingdom upon 
the ruins of Carthage : they then embarked for Italy, and 

164. What were the three principal rehgious doctrines of the 
Goths 1 Who was their principal deity, and how was he rep- 
resented 1 What were represented to be the joys of the Scan- 
dinavian paradise 1 

165. Where did the Vandals emigrate from, and at what 
period 1 Where did they found a kingdom ] By whom were 
they overthrown '^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 119 

took Rome by assault, and avenged the Carthaginians, six 
hundred years after their overthrow. The Vandals be- 
came proverbial for their rage for devastation : after they 
had ravaged Rome, they returned to Africa, and continued 
a monarchy for 100 years, which was finally overthrown 
by Belisarius, a celebrated Roman general, in A. D. 534. 

166. Ancient Germans. The Germans, as well as the 
Gauls, were branches of the original nation called Celts, 
who inhabited most of the countries in Europe, south of 
the Baltic, before they were invaded by the Scandina- 
vians. They are described by ancient authors, as men 
of great stature, of a fair complexion, and fierce counte- 
nances. They were robust, being inured to cold and 
hardships, with little clothing in winter, and scarcely any 
in summer. In battle, their first onset was almost irre- 
sistible, but their strength and ardor were soon exhausted. 
The first inhabitants of Europe, like other savages, sub- 
sisted on the flesh of wild beasts, fish, fowls, and the fruits 
of forest-trees, particularly acorns. As they advanced 
in population, they raised cattle for a subsistence. 

167. Driiidical Religion. The religion of the Celtic 
nations wa.s Druidism ; the priests of which were called 
Druids. This religion, like that of the Scandinavian, 
acknowledged a god who delighted in bloodshed. It 
taught the immortality of the soul, and a contempt for 
danger and death. It is said that they neither had tem- 
ples nor idols, but worshiped their god in a consecrated 
grove, which was the place appointed for prayer and 
sacrifice, and which none but the priests were allowed 
to enter. Their chief sacrifices were human victims, 
probably prisoners taken in war. The Druids concealed 
the mysteries of their worship, and thus gave great sanc- 
tity to their character. They had the greatest influence 
over the minds of the people, so that the Romans had 

166. What is said of the Germans and Gauls'? How are 
they described 1 What did the first inhabitants subsist on 1 

167. Who were the Druids ] What did the druidical reli- 
gion teach 1 What is said of the manner of worship 1 Their 
sacrifices 1 What did the Romans do to secure their con- 
quests ? 



120 MODERN HISTORY. 

no other way of securing their conquests over the Celtic 
nations, than by exterminating the Druids. 

168. Poetry and Learning. The Gothic nations were 
greatly attached to warlike music and poetry. Hence 
they had an order of men called hards, who composed 
poems in honor of brave men, and sung them on public 
occasions. All the first laws, customs, and religious rites, 
were rehearsed or recorded in verse ; and songs and po- 
ems were their only histories. The inhabitants of north- 
ern Europe neglected and even despised the use of letters. 
For a long period, the Druids or priests pretended to have 
all the learning of those rude ages, but would not commit 
their knowledge to writing. The prejudice against learn- 
ing continued down to the ninth century after the Chris- 
tian era ; the Emperor Charlemagne, at that period, could 
not write his own name, and many of the nobility, for 
ages afterwards, made their marks, and set their seals, 
instead of their proper signatures, to written instruments. 

169. Sacking of Rome hy Alaric. The Goths, under 
the conduct of the famous Alaric, filled all Greece with 
the terror of their arms, and spread their devastations to 
the very walls of Constantinople. He afterwards laid 
siege to Rome, but was induced to retire from its walls 
by receiving from the inhabitants 5,000 pounds of gold, 
30,000 pounds of silver, and almost an incredible quan- 
tity of other valuable articles. But the doom of the city 
was not far distant. In A. D. 410, Alaric again appeared 
under the walls of Rome, and reduced this great city, 
which had long sat mistress of the world, to the greatest 
distress. Through the treachery of the Roman guard, 
one of the gates was silently opened, and the inhabitants 
were awakened at midnight by the sound of the Gothic 
trumpet. For six days the fierce tribes of Germany and 

168. Who were the bards ? How were the first laws, his- 
tories, &c., preserved 1 What is said of the Druids ? What 
of the Emperor Charlemagne T 

150. What is said of Alaric, and the Goths ] What induced 
Alaric to retire from Rome 1 How did Alaric get into Rome 
and what did his soldiers do 1 



MODERN HISTORY, 121 

Scythia devastated the city, and indulged their cruelty 
and ferocity without pity or restraint. 



The Goths, under Alaric, ravaging Rome, 

170. Ravages of Attila, the Hun. A few years after 
the sacking of Rome by Alaric, the Huns, under their 
leader, Attila, commenced their sanguinary ravages. 
This people are supposed to have originated from the 
eastern part of Asia ; their incursions were extremely 
desolating, and their ferocious king, Attila, was called 
the " Scourge of God.''^ He first invaded the East, 
which he ravaged at pleasure ; the Emperor Theodo- 
sius, at Constantinople, however, bought his favor by 
paying tribute. He now turned to the West, and in- 
vaded Gaul, with an army of 500,000 men. He was 
here defeated by the Romans, with the loss of 160,000 
men, which checked his progress for a time. He, 
however, not long afterwards, invaded Italy, and com- 
pelled the Emperor Valentinian to purchase a peace. 
Attila dying suddenly, the earth was delivered from a 
warrior, who never suffered Europe to enjoy repose. 

171. Extinction of the Western Roman Empire. The 
end of the Roman empire in the West, took place by the 

170. What is said of the Huns, and what was their king 
called ^ Give an account of the invasion of Attila. 
11 



122 MODERN HISTORY. 

taking- of Rome, by Odoacer, prince of the Heruli, in 
A. D. 476. The last Emperor, Romulus Augustus, had 
his life spared upon condition of resigning the empire 
to Odoacer, who assumed the title of King of Italy. 
Thus the empire of Rome passed from the hands of its 
ancient masters, into the possession of those called bar- 
barians, who had so long harassed it by their invasions. 
As an empire, it had existed more than 500 years, com- 
puting the time from the battle of Actium. The whole 
period of its duration, from the founding of the city by 
Romulus, was more than twelve hundred years. The 
ruin of the Roman empire, the most powerful the world 
ever saw, was the result of its moral corruption, com- 
bined with its great extent of territory. Rome, having 
become a mass of luxury, weakness, and profligacy, fell 
an easy prey to the surrounding barbarous nations. 

172. Reign of Theodoric the Great. The kingdom 
of the Heruli lasted but about twenty years. The na- 
tion of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, under their 
prince, Theodoric, invaded Italy. After a struggle of 
four years, Odoacer surrendered all Italy to the con- 
queror, and Theodoric (commonly surnamed the Great) 
was acknowledged the sovereign of the country, and 
fixed his residence at Ravenna. He reigned about thirty- 
three years, and has the reputation of being an able and 
virtuous prince. The successors of Theodoric, in the 
Gothic kingdom of Italy, were seven in number ; they 
were succeeded in the sovereignty by the Lamba.rds, 
another Gothic nation. The Goths, at the time of their 
taking Rome, under Alaric, had partially embraced 
Christianity, and though they retained a portion of their 
barbarian manners, when they settled in Italy, were at 
least as virtuous as the native citizens. 



171. What caused the extinction of the western Roman em- 
pire ? How long had it existed as an empire ] And how 
long from the foundhig of Rome by Romulus \ 

172. Who was Tlieodoric, where did he fix his residence, 
and what was his character ? What is said of the Golhs at 
the time of their taking Rome T 



MODERN HISTORY. 123 

173. Eastern Roman Empire. The eastern empire, 
sometimes called the Greek Empire^ although it suffered 
much from the ravages of barbarous nations, yet it re- 
sisted their attacks and existed more than eleven centw 
ries from the time of its foundation by Constantine. 
The empire was in the meridian of its glory in the sixth 
century, during the long reign of Justinian, (sometimes 
called the Great,) who published a code of laws pre- 
pared by a great lawyer of that age. This code is re- 
garded as the foundation of the science of law in modern 
Europe. After the removal of the seat of Empire, there 
arose a rivalship between the Bishop or pope of Rome, 
and the patriarch of Constantinople, each contending for 
the supremacy. This controversy finally ended in the 
entire separation of. the western or Roman, and the 
eastern or Greek churches. Justinian built the church 
of *S^. Sophia, which is now a Turkish mosque, in 
Constantinople. 

174. Belisarius. During the reign of Justinian, Beli- 
sarins, a celebrated general in the eastern empire, re- 
vi\ ed in a degree the fading glory of the Roman name. 
He defended the empire against the Persians, recovered 
Africa from the Vandals, and carried their king prisoner 
to Constantinople. Belisarius defeated the Goths in 
Italy, and for a while restored Rome, the ancient capital, 
to the Empire. This success, however, excited the 
jealousy of Justinian, and he was recalled to Constan- 
tinople, and the Goths again nearly overran Italy. 
Belisarius was once more sent to expel the Goths, and 
when he had nearly accomplished this object, he was 
again recalled. He died, after a life of military glory, 
having experienced much from royal ingratitude, A. I). 
564. 

175. Conquest of Italy hy the Lombards. In A. D. 

173. What was the eastern empire sometimes called ? How 
long did it exist from Constantine I Who published a code of 
laws, and what is said of them ? Who contended for the 
supremacy in the church, and how did the controversy end ? 

174. VVho was Belisarius, and what is said of him ] Why 
was he recalled to Constantinople ! 



124 MODERN HI&TORY. 

568 the Lombards, another Gothic tiibe, expelled the 
Ostrogoths from the sovereignty of Italy, and were mas- 
ters of the greater portion of it for more than three 
hundred years. This tribe gave a permanent name to 
the northern section of Italy. The occasion of their 
entrance into the country was the invitation to invade 
it by Nurses, the general of Justinian, the emperor, to 
avenge the wrongs which he suffered from that mon- 
arch, by being recalled from Italy. Several attempts 
were made by Maurice, the eastern emperor, assisted 
by a number of barbarian chiefs, to expel the Lombards, 
but without much effect. An anarchy took place after 
the death of one of the Lombard kings, which continued 
for ten years, during which time Italy was governed by 
thirty dukes. One of the kings, in A. D. 584, con- 
firmed the dukes in their authority, on condition of pay- 
ing him half their revenues, and serving under his 
command in time of war. This is considered by some 
as the origin of the feudal system, which will be here- 
after described. 

■*«« 176. State of the World on the Extinction of the 
Wester?! or Roman Empire. By the ftill of the western 
empire, the arts and sciences declined ; darkness and 
barbarism began to prevail in many parts of the Roman 
world. It was at this period that Italy was so overrun 
with the Gothic nations, that the Latin tongue ceased to 
be spoken. Christianity, during this period, was con- 
siderably extended, particularly in Gaul, Britain, and 
Scotland, and among some of the barbarous tribes be- 
yond the Danube. These conversions, however, seemed 
to consist in but little more than the adoption of some 
of tlie outward forms of Christianity ; such as baptism, 
making the sign of the cross, &c. Religious errors 
and corruptiofts abounded, and but very little of the 

175. Who expelled the Ostrogoths 1 How long were ti.ey 
masters of Italy ■? When did an anarchy take place, and how 
was Italy governed after that event ? 

176. What, effect did the fall of the western empire have? 
What is said of the extension of Christianity during this 
period 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 125 



genuine spirit of Christianity seemed to prevail. By 
the destruction of the Roman power, many of the prov- 
inces of the empire being obUged to manage their own 
affairs, became independent, particularly Spain, Britain, 
and France. 

177. Of Spain. Spain was anciently called Hesperia, 
or Western, on account of its situation, as being the 
extreme west known to the ancients. It was also 
called Iberia, from the river Iber, now the Ebro. The 
name Hispania, or Spain, is said to be derived from a 
Avord meaning, abounding with rabbits, these animals 
formerly being very numerous in Spain. The original 
inhabitants were Celts, of the same race with those of 
France. The fertility of the soil induced ihe Phosne- 
cians, who were the first navigators, to open a trade 
with Spain, and they built the city of Gades, now 
Cadiz, about nine hundred years before the Christian 
era. About 500 years before Christ, it was partly subdu- 
ed by the Carthaginians, who held possession for about 
three centuries. The Romans then succeeded as mas- 
ters, in whose power it remained for six hundred years. 
After the Romans, the northern barbarians held posses- 
sion, till displaced by the Moors. 

178. Of Britain. The island of Britain, before it 
was known to the Romans, was inhabited by a very 
rude and uncivilized people. They went nearly naked, 
or clothed only with the skin of beasts, having their 
bodies painted with various colors ; and it is said that 
the country was named from a word in its language, 
which signified painted. All ancient authors agree that 
the first inhabitants of Britain were a tribe of Gauls, or 
Celts from the neighboring continent. Caledonia, now 
called Scotland, was so little known to the Romans, 

177. What was Spain anciently called ^ What was the 
name Hispania, or Spain, derived from 1 Who buiU the city 
of Gades or Cadiz 1 State the names of those nations who 
have had possession of Spain. 

178. What is said of the inhabitants of Britain, before it 
was known to the Romans? What was Scotland formerly 
called ] What was the ancient name for Ireland ] 

11* 



126 MODERN HISTORY. 

and its inhabitants so little civilized, that they called 
it Britannia Barbara, or Barbarous Britain. Hibernia 
was the ancient name for Ireland. Julius Cesar began 
the Roman dominion in Britain, which continued till 
A. D. 426, when the Romans withdrew their forces, in 
order to defend themselves at home, from the incursions 
of the Gothic nations. 

179. Of England. The ancestors of the EnsHsh, 
who subdued the Britons, are generally known by the 
name of Saxons. A tribe of this people was called 
Angles, a term formed from eng, a Saxon word, which 
signified a meadow, or plain. The Angles inhabited 
the low lands along the banks of the Elbe and VVescr, 
and on the borders of the Baltic sea. After this tribe 
obtained possession of the south part of Britain, it was 
called from them Eng-\n.n(\, and hence the word English. 
When the Romans left the island, the Britons being left 
without protection, they were greatly harassed by their 
former enemies, the Scots and Picts, inhabiting the 
northern part of Britain. In their distress they applied 
to the Saxons, one of the most warlike tribes of Ger- 
many, for assistance. The first body of Saxons ar- 
rived in the year 449, and joining the Britons, defeated 
the Scots and Picts in a bloody battle. 

180. Saxon conquest of England. The Saxons being 
pleased with the country which they had defended, 
determined to make it their future residence. For this 
purpose they sent for additional troops. Being now 
sufhciently strong, they began a quarrel with the Britons 
about their provisions and promised rewards, and en- 
forced their demands by fire and sword. The Britons, 
roused to indignation against their treacherous allies, 
made a desperate war upon them ; they were, however, 

179. Who were the ancestors of the English] What is 
said of the word Angles ! What country did the Angles in- 
habit ? W^hen the Romans left Britain, by whom were the 
English harassed, and what did they do I 

180. What is said of the Saxons? How did they obtain 
possession ] How many petty kingdoms did they establish 
and what were they called 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 127 

defeated, and the Saxons, under Hengist, established 
their kingdom in England. The Saxons now came 
over in large bodies, and established seven petty king- 
doms, called the Heptarchy, which, after a series of 
wars and revolutions, which lasted 200 years, were 
united in one kingdom under Egbert, in A. D. 827. 

181. Introduction of Christianity into Britain. The 
religion of the ancient Britons was Druidism^ being 
similar to that of the Goths, or Scandinavians. Chris- 
tianity is supposed to have been introduced into Britain 
during the age of the apostles. It is certain, however, 
that it had made some progress as early as the second 
century q{ the Christian era. The Saxons, when they 
conquered England, were pagans ; and wherever they 
established themselves, endeavored to extirpate Chris- 
tianity. They murdered the Christian clergy, and de- 
stroyed their places of worship. In A. D. 570, Ethel- 
bert, one of the Saxon kings, married a daughter of the 
king of France, who was a Christian, and it was agreed 
in the marriage contract, that she should enjoy the free 
exercise of her religion. In A. D. 597, Pope Gregory 
§ent Augustine, with forty other monks, to instruct the 
inhabitants of England in the Christian religion ; and 
from this period it gradually gained the ascendancy, till 
the seventh century, when it became the religion of all 
the inhabitants. 

182. Of France. France, anciently called Gaul, at 
the period of the dissolution of the western Roman em- 
pire, was divided between the Visogothsr, Burgundians, 
and Franks. This last tribe is supposed to have been 
of German origin. Under their king, Ciovis, in A. D. 
481, the Franks obtained possession of the country by 
degrees, and from this people, Gaul obtained the name 
of France. Ciovis, in his contest with the Germans, in 

181. What was the ancient religion of the Britons "? When 
is it supposed Christianity was introduced ? Who did Ethel- 
bert marry, and what is said of the marriage agreement ] What 
is said of Augustine ! 

182. What was France anciently called, and how divided? 
Who was Ciovis, and why did he profess Christianity 1 



128 MODERN HISTORY. 

A. D. 496, invoked assistance from the god of Clotilda, 
a Christian princess he had married three years before. 
Being victorious, he became a professed believer in 
Christianity, and, with 3,000 of his subjects, was bap- 
tized on Christmas day, the same year. His religion, 
however, had but little influence over him, as in 13 
years afterwards he murdered most of his relatives. 
He made Paris the seat of his kingdom, arid his im- 
mediate successors were in general a race of weak and 
wicked mon. 

183. Of the Arabs, or Saracens. The Arabs, in all 
ages, have lived as wanderers in a state of independ- 
ence ; they never have been subdued by any of the 
great conquerors of the world, although generally at 
war with their neighbors. They derive their origin 
from Ishmael, and have, in a remarkable manner, ful- 
filled the Divine prediction concerning their ancestor : 
" He shall be a wild man, his hand against OA^'ery man, 
and every man's against him, and yet he should dwell 
in the presence of all his brethren." Before the time 
of Mahomet, the Arab religion was a mixture of idola- 
try and Judaism. The Saracens were a people who in- 
habited the northwest part of Arabia, and this name 
was applied to most of the Arabian tribes, who before 
this period had been induced by the hope of plunder to 
forsake their deserts. 

Arabia had afforded an asylum to the persecuted 
Christians of different sects ; and at the end of the 
sixth century, Christianity, though in a very corrupt 
form, had become the prevailing religion in some parts 
of the country. This was the state of Arabia when 
Mahomet, the successful impostor, appeared, whose re- 
ligion has had such a mighty influence on the destinies 
of mankind. 

183. What is said of the Arabs'? From whom did they 
derive their origin ? What was the prophecy concerning 
Ishmael f Who were the Saracens \ 



PERIOD III 

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MAHOM- 
ETAN RELIGION. 




Mahometanism offered to Mankind. 

FROM THE BIRTH OF MAHOMET TO THE CROWNING OF CHARLEMAGNE 

(331 YEARS.) 

184. Of Mahomet. Mahomet was born at Mecca, a 
city in Arabia, near the Red Sea, A. D. 569. He was 
'Jescended from a noble family, but his circumstances 
were mean, and his education scanty ; he however pos- 
sessed great natural talents, by which he was able to ex- 
ercise great influence over the passions and affections 
of men. At an early age he lost his parents ; his uncle 
then became his guardian, and under his care he was 
instructed in the business of a merchant, and several 
times accompanied the caravans into Syria, by which 
his knowledge of men was extended. At the age of 
25 he entered into the service of Cadijah, a rich and 
noble widow of Mecca, whom he soon after married; 
and by this means he became possessed of wealth and 



184. Where was Mahomet born, and at what time ? What 
was his education and talents'? How came he possessed of 
wealth and power ] How did he pretend to have received the 
Koran ? 



130 MODERN HISTORi. 

power. FTen years after his marriage, he put on the 
appearance of great sanctity, retired every morning to 
a cave near Mecca, where he pretended to hold confer- 
ences with the ai^gel Gabriel, who delivered to him 
portions of the Koran, (the Bible of the Mahometans,) 
containing revelations from God, which his prophet 
(Mahomet) was to make known to the worldJ 

185. Of the Koran. The Koran, while Iviahomet 
lived, was kept alone in loose sheets. His followers 
say he had no hand in inditing it, but that it was deliv- 
ered to him from God by the angel Gabriel, who com- 
municated to him a verse or two at a time, during the 
course of 23 years. During this period, the Mahome- 
tans say that God himself repealed and altered several 
doctrines and precepts which the prophet had before 
received and recorded. This accounts, say they, for 
the contradictions, disorders, and confusions, visible in 
the work. By this piecemeal revelation, Mahomet had 
the advantage, whenever he happened to be perplexed 
with any thing, of obtaining a new revelation. The 
religion of the Koran is a system of Asiatic sensuality, 
intermixed with some of the precepts of Christianity, and 
rites of Judaism. Moses and Jesus Christ are admitted 
to be prophets ; but Mahomet is the greatest of all, and 
no other is to be expected after him. Mahomet taught 
a belief in one God, in the resurrection and final judg- 
ment, and in God's eternal decrees. As Mahomet was 
rather an illiterate man, he is supposed to have employed 
one Sergius, a monk, who had a principal hand in com- 
posing the Koran. 

186. Mahometan Paradise. The religion of Mahomet 
was made popular with the eastern nations, by the na- 
ture of the rewards which he promised his followers. 
In this particular the paradise of the Mahometans dif- 
fered in some respects from that of the Gothic nations 

185. What do the followers of Mahomet say respecting the 
Koran 1 How do they account for the contradictions visible 
in it 1 What is said of the religion of the Koran "? What did 
Mahomet teach ? 



MODERN HISTORY. • 131 

in Europe. This latter people delighted in war and 
bloodshed, and to these scenes their ideas of a future 
state corresponded. The eastern, or Oriental nations, 
in their burning climate, considered happiness to con- 
sist in luxurious enjoyment and repose. Hence, Ma- 
homet informed those who were believers, that after 
death they would enter into pleasant gardens and shady 
groves, where cool fountains and rivers of water con- 
tinually flow ; there were also rivers of milk, wine, and 
honey; also the tree of happiness, laden with all kinds 
of fruit of surprising bigness, and of tastes unknown 
to mortals. In these delightful gardens they would 
be attended by the hoiiris, or maidens of surpassing 
beauty. 




ht of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 



187. Flight of Mahomet. In the year 609, Mahomet 
having matured his system, began to announce himself 
as a prophet sent from God, and to publish his religion. 
For several years his efforts were confined to the city 

186. What made the Mahometan religion popular? How 
was the Mahometan paradise distinguished from that of the 
Gothic nations 1 . In what did the eastern or Oriental nations, 
suppose happiness to consist 1 



132 « MODERN HISTORY. 

of Mecca. His first converts were his wife, his slave, 
his pupil, aiid a friend. After awhile, ;en of the most 
respectable citizens of Mecca were won over to his 
faith. These were the only triumphs of his religion 
for fourteen years. In A. D. 622, Mahomet met with 
so much opposition in Mecca, that he was obliged to 
flee to Medina, in order to save his life. This flight is 
called by the Mahometans the Hegira, and is regarded 
by them as their grand epoch, being the period from 
which they compute their time. 

188. Propagation of Mahometanism. Mahomet was 
received with enthusiasm by 500 of the richest citizens 
of Medina ; the people embraced his faith, swore alle- 
giance, and repeated the Mahometan creed : " There is 
but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.^' To those 
who demanded of him a miracle in proof of his mission, 
he replied, that God had sent Moses and Jesus, wiih 
miracles, and yet men would not be obedient to his word ; 
he now, therefore, had sent him, in the last place, to 
force men to do his will by the power of the sword. 
From the time of his establishment at Medina, Mahomet 
placed himself at the head of an army of his converts, 
and propagated his religion by the sword, and before 
his death was master of all Arabia. 

Mahomet divided his spoil among his followers, and 
from all sides the roving Arabs were allured to the 
standard of religion and plunder. In order to reconcile 
the timid to the dangers of war, he taught that those 
who were killed in battle, would have died at that very 
moment, had they remained at home in their houses : 
the time of every man's life being fixed by the decree 
of God. " The sword," says Mahomet, " is the key 
of heaven and hell ; a drop of blood shed in the cause 
of God, or a night spent in arms, is of more avail than 



187. Who were the first converts of Mahomet? What is 
said of his flight from Mecca 1 

188. What expression contains the Mahometan creed \ 
What reason did Mahomet give for not perfgrming miracles T 
How did he propagate his religion"? What did he say of his 
lollowers that were killed in buttle ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 133 

two months of fasting and prayer, and whoever falls in 
battle his sins are forgiven." 

189. Death of Mahomet. Having conquered all Ara- 
bia, Mahomet next turned his arms towards Syria, 
against which he was proceeding with an army of 
20,000 foot and 10,000 horse, when he was poisoned 
by a Jewish female. The poison is said to have been 
put into a shoulder of mutton, which Mahomet tasting, 
but not liking, spit out. He survived for a time, yet it 
finally killed him. The girl being asked why she did 
it, replied, "that she had a mind to try whether he was 
a prophet ; for if he was, he would certainly know that 
the meat was poisoned ; and if he was not, it would be 
a good thing to rid the world of so wicked a tyrant." 
He died at the age of 63, and was buried on the spot 
where he expired. His remains were afterwards re- 
moved to Medina, whither countless numbers of pil- 
grims to Mecca, often turn aside to bow in devotion 
before the simple tomb of the prophet. 

190. Successors of Mahomet. Mahomet was succeed- 
ed by Abu-heker, who is styled the calif a word signi- 
fying, in the Arabic language, successor. He continued 
a career of conquest, defeated the Greek emperor, took 
Damascus, and died in the third year of his reign. At 
his death he bequeathed the scepter to the brave Omar, 
who, with the assistance of his general, in one cam- 
paign deprived the Greek emperor of Syria, Phcenecia, 
Mesopotam.ia, and Chaldea ; the next campaign, the 
whole of the empire of Persia was reduced to the Ma- 
hometan dominion and religion. His army, under Am- 
rou, took Alexandria, and subdued Egypt. Amrou being 
requested to spare the Alexandrian library, wrote for 
directions concerning it to Omar, who returned the fol- 
lowing answer, well suited to a barbarian and fanatic : 

189. What was the cause of Mahomet's death 1 What 
reason did the girl give for doing it ] Where was Mahomet 
finally buried ? 

190. By whom was Mahomet succeeded] What is said oi 
Omar "? What answer did he give respecting the Alexandrian 
iil»rary ? What is said of this library "? 

12 



184 MODERN HISTORY. 

" If these writings agree with the Koran, they are use- 
less, and need not be preserved ; if they disagree with 
it, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed," 
This great library, said to contain from 500,000 to 
700,000 volumes, was burnt, and was the greatest loss 
to literature recorded in history. 

191, Mahometan,, or Saracen Empire. In less than 
half a century, the Mahometans, or Saracens, (as the 
followers of the prophet were called,) raised an empire 
more extensive than what then remained of the Roman. 
In 100 years from the flight of Mahomet, the dominions 
of his successors extended from India to the xVtlantic, 
comprehending the widely extended dominions of Per- 
sia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, the north of Af- 
rica, and Spain. All, one of the Mahometan sove- 
reigns, removed the seat of government to Cufa, on the 
Euphrates ; and in A. D. 7G8, it was removed to Bag- 
dady which became one of the most splendid cities of 
the world, being the seat of the Saracen empire, and so 
continued for nearly 500 years, when it was taken by 
the Tartars, in A. D. 1258. At this time the califate 
was abolished, and the empire of the Saracens may be 
considered as terminated. 

192. Conquest of Spain by the Saracens, or Moors. 
In the early part of the eighth century, Spain was in- 
vaded by the Saracens, or Moors, from Africa, and in 
A. D. 713, they gained the great battle of Xeres, in 
which Roderick, the Gothic king, was slain. Previous 
to the invasion of Spain, the Saracens extended their 
conquests into the north of Africa, near Spain, conquer- 
ed the Moorish tribes along the coast, and adopted them 
into the Mahometan family. From Africa, the Saracens 
extended their conquests into Spain, and from this cir- 
cumstance they were called Moors. In a few years, 

191. Give an account of the extent of the Mahometan, or 
Saracen empire What is said of Bagdad 1 

192. When was Spain invaded by the Moors'? Why vi^ere 
the Saracens of Africa called Moors 1 Who established an 
independent kingdom in Spain, and what was tne name of the 
capital '' 



MODERN HISTORV. 135 

the Moors overran the most of Spain, and for some 
time it was croverned by the viceroys of the Saracen 
caHfs. In 755, Ahderrahman established an indepen- 
dent kingdom, and fixed the seat of his government at 
Cordova, which became 'a place of great splendor and 
magnificence, and for two centuries was the capital of 
a splendid monarchy, which, at this period, was the 
most enlightened state in Europe, being distinguished 
for its attention to the arts and sciences. 

193. Christian Kingdoms in Spain. When the 
Moors had conquered the greater part of Spain, the 
Gothic, or, as they are now called, the Christian forces, 
retired to the mountains of the Asturias, and founded a 
kingdom in 718. From this time they gradually re- 
covered other parts of the country. For several cen- 
turies, there were frequent struggles between the 
Christians and Moors. Several distinct Christian king- 
doms were established during this period, the most con- 
siderable of which were Castile, Leon, Arragon, and 
Navarre. iVs the several provinces of Spain were 
wrested from the Moors at different times, and by dif- 
ferent leade s, almost every province was formed into a 
separate kingdom. By conquest, marriages, &c., these 
petty kingdoms were gradually diminished, until about 
A. D. 1479, when all the Spanish crowns were united 
in one, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, the 
former, monarch of Arragon, the latter, of Castile. It 
was during their reign, that the Moors were driven from 
Grenada, the only possession they had left in Spain. 

194. Defeat of the Saracens, hy Charles Martel. The 
Saracens, having conquered the greater part of Spain, 
next turned their arms against France, and all Europe 
was threatened with subjugation to the Mahometan do- 
minion and religion. Charles Martel, who held in his 

193. Where did the Christian forces retire, on the invnsion 
of the Moors'! What Christian kingdoms in Spain 1 Under 
what monarchs were they finally united '^ 

194. By whom were the Saracens defeated ? What were 
the consequences of this event 1 



136 MODERN H.STOR^. . 

hands the government of France, by his genius and 
great exeriions, rescued the empire from destruction. 
He brought the Moors to a general engagement, near 
Poictiers, and, notwithstanding their numbers and 
bravery, defeated tliem wilii immense slaughter. They 
afterwards rebelled, but were again defeated and driven 
out of France. By this event, the terror with which 
the Saracens filled Europe, was greatly removed ; and 
it is a remarkable fact, that after this defeat, they made 
no farther attack upon the northern nations. 

1 95. State uf the Eastern Empire. During the period 
of tho' Saracen conquests, the eastern empire retained a 
portion of its ancient grandeur. Constantinople, the 
capital, though splendid and refined, was a constant 
scene of rebellions and conspiracies, and the members 
of the imperial I'amily committed a series of the most 
horrid and atrocious crimes. One emperor was put to 
death in revenge for murder and incest ; another was 
poisoned by his queen ; a third was assassinated in the 
bath, by his own domestics ; a fourth tore out the eyes 
of his brothers ; the Empress Irene, who commenced 
her reign in A. D. 788. deposed and murdered her only 
son. At this period, tuere was a most violent contro- 
versy respecting the worship of images in the churches ; 
and these disputes were often settled by the sword. 
The Empress Irene assembled a council of 350 bishops, 
at Nice, who established the worship of images, and 
pronounced the most dreadful curses against all those 
who should make any opposition. 

196. Arabian Literature. The Arabians were early 
distinguished for their love of poetry. The book of 
Job, the earliest poetic composition of which we have 
any knowledge, was written in Arabia. I was custom- 
arv, before the time of Mahomet, in the fcirs at Mecc;?, 
to have poetical contests ; and the poem to which the 

195. What was the state of the Greek empire, during the 
period of the Saracen conquests \ What is said cf the Em- 
press Irene ? 

196. What is said of the book of Job"? What is said of 
the poetical contests? What is said of Haroun al Raschidt 



MODERiV HISTORY. 137 

prize was awarded, was written on asbestos, in letters 
of gold, and hung up in their sacred buildings. These 
poems are distinguished for deep feelings, exalted im- 
agination, rich imagery, and violent breathings of love 
and revenge. The brightest period of Arabian history- 
commenced with Mahomet: the golden age of the Ma- 
hometan literature was during the reign of Haroun al 
Raschid, who flourished about A. D. 800. This prince 
invited to Bagdad learned men from all countries, and 
paid them princely salaries. He caused the works of 
the most famous Greek authors to be translated into 
Arabic. Al Mamum, who ruled soon after, offered the 
Greek emperor 10,000 pounds of gold, and a perpetual 
peace, if he would send him the philosopher Leo, to 
instruct him. 

197. Arts and Sciences. At the time when the whole 
civilized world appeared to be approaching towards a 
barbarous state, the Saracens employed themselves in 
collecting and diffusing knowledge in the three divisions 
of the world. Besides the ilcademy at Cordova, the 
Saracens had fourteen others, of a superior class, in 
Spain. Soon after the beginning of the tenth century, 
students traveled from various European countries to 
the Arabian schools in Spain, in order to gain a 
knowledge of mathematics, medicine, and other sci- 
ences. The figures which we now use in arithmetic, 
were introduced into Europe by the Saracens, — letters 
of the alphabet being previously used. They had an ex- 
tensive knowledge of medicine, zealously studied botany, 
and may be considered as the inventors of chemistry. 
They were also distinguished for their knowledge of 
history, geography, geometry, and astronomy. This is 
proved from the various terms used in these sciences, 
which are derived from the Arabic. In A. D. 802, the 
calif at Bagdad sent Charlemagne a present of a striking 
clock, in order to court his alliance. 

197. What is said of the Saracens' diffusing knowledjre T 
Of their academies ? Of their libraries and students ] Wliat 
did thev introduce into Europe? 

12* 



13^ MODERN HISTORY. 

198. Attack on Constantinople. Greek Fire. While 
the Saracens were extending their conquests, the east- 
ern, or Greek empire, was also invaded by them, and 
suffered the loss of several valuable provinces ; particu- 
larly Syria, and its provinces in Africa, which have ever 
since, lor the most of the time, remained under the do 
minion of the Mahometans. In 673, the Saracens be 
sieged Constantinople, but were compelled to retire. 
They renewed their attacks for seven years in succes- 
sion, but were defeated each time, by CalUnicus, who 
invented an inextinguishable fire, called the Greek f.re, 
by which he destroyed their ships. This liquid fire 
was composed of such materials, that water, instead of 
quenching, quickened this powerful agent of destruc- 
tion. It was a period of more than 400 years, before 
the secret of its composition was obtained from the 
Greeks. The Mahometans at length discovered and 
stole it. It continued to be used in war, till the dis- 
covery of gunpowder, in the fourteenth century. 

199. The Feudal System. The feudal system had 
its origin among those barbarous nations, the Goths, 
Lombards, &c., who overran the countries of Europe 
on the decline of the Roman Empire. It was adopted 
by Charlemagne, and eventually by most of the princes 
of Europe. When a northern chief or king made a con- 
quest of a Roman province, the lands, after he had taken 
out his share, were distributed by lot to his principal 
chiefs, who served under his orders. These lands were 
held in entire sovereignty by the different chieftains, 
with this condition, that in time of war, they were to 
render their military services to the king. This bond 
of union being feeble, the king oftentimes found it diffi- 
cult to obtain assistance from his chiefs or nobles, and 
his kingdom frequently exhibited a scene of anarchy, 
turbulence, and strife. 



198. When did the Saracens besiege Constantinople "* What 
is said of the Greek fire? How long was it used? 

199. Where did the feudal system have its ori-i How 
was the system introduced ^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 139 

200. Of the Barons or Lords. The example of the 
king in distributing hinds was imitated by his chiefs, 
who also, under similar conditions, distributed portions 
of their estates to their dependents. Every freeman or 
soldier, upon receiving his allotment of the conquered 
lands, bound himself to appear in arms against the com- 
mon enemy, whenever his leader should call upon him 
for this purpose. The grantor of land was called lord, 
or baron, and they who received the grant, -were called 
vassals. The same service which a vassal owed his 
lord, was due from the lord to the king Possessed of 
a large tract of country, and residing at a distance from 
the capital, these barons, or lords, erected strong castles 
or fortresses in places difficult of access: they oppressed 
their dependents, slighted the civil laws of the state, 
and were often in a condition to set the authority of the 
king at defiance. In the reign of Stephen, of England, 
when the feudal system was at its height, not less than 
one thousand castles had been erected in the southern 
part of the island. 

201. Of the Serfs, or Villeins. The most numerous 
and useful class of the community, were the common 
people who cultivated the lands, and were called serfs, 
or villeins. They were in a miserable state of servi- 
tude, and no better than slaves, being transferred from 
one lord to another, like cattle and the implements of 
husbandry. The barons often contended with each 
other, and settled their disputes by trhe sword : " the 
people became familiarized to violence and blool, to 
despotism and injustice ; intellectual and moral improve- 
ment was suspended, the arts and sciences were ban- 
ished, and the light of Christianity was obscured." 
Never was there a period in the annals of Europe, so 

200. In what re.spect did the chiefs imitate thekins^'? Who 
were lords, and who vassals \ What is said of the harons, or 
lords ? 

201. Who were the most numeronsclassof the community 1 
W hat were they called, and what was their condition] What 
is said of the eia of the feudal system \ 



140 MODERN HISTORY 

filled with atrocious actions, as from tlie seventh to the 
eleventh century, the era of the feudal system. 

202. Decline of the Feudal System. At the com- 
mencement of the twelfth century, the unhappy state of 
things, brought on by the prevalence of the feudal sys 
tern, began to abate, and government, laws and manners, 
began to have influence on the minds of men. Some 
of the principal causes of the decline of the system, 
were the Crusades ; the formation of cities into commu- 
nities with special privileges ; the extension of com- 
merce ; the increase and distribution of wealth, and the 
difl^usion of knowledge. The establishment of standing 
armies had a great efl^ect. By this means, the king was 
able to crush the power of the nobles, and reduce them 
to order and obedience. The feudal system, however, 
still exists in some degree, in some parts of Europe, 
particularly in Russia and Poland, and in some parts of 
Germany. 

203. Bishop of Rome. When Christianity first pre- 
vailed throughout the Roman empire, Rome was the 
seat of government. From this circumstance the bishop 
and church at Rome obtained a kind of pre-eminence 
over all others. The authority of the bishop of Rome 
seems to have been first established by Phocas, the em- 
peror of Constantinople, who in A. D. 600, conferred 
on Boniface III., the title of Universal Bishop, and at 
the same time declared the " Church of Rome to be the 
head of all other churches^ The bishop of Rome is also 
called the Sovereign or Roman Pontiff, or High Priest, 
and the Pope: this latter term is derived from a Greek 
word, which signifies /aMc^r, and accordingly, the pope 
is considered by the Roman Catholics, as the father and 
head of all Christians, and the regular successor of the 
Apostle Peter. They believe that Peter was the first 
pope or bishop of Rome : they also believe the pope to 

202. What were the principal causes of the decline of the 
feudal system 1 Where does the feudal system, in a degree, 
now exist ? 

303. By whom was the church of Rome declared to be the 
head of all others 1 What is the bishop of Rome called 1 
State the belief of the Catholics ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 141 

be infallible, that is, he cannot err, when he addresses 
himself to the faithful on matters of doctrine, &c. 

20 1. Temporal power of the Popes. At the time when 
Childeric, a weak prince, occupied the throne of France, 
Pepin, the son of Charles Martel, was his prime minis- 
ter. The latter, who aspired to the throne, referred the 
question to Pope Zachary, whether he or Childt-ric was 
best entitled to the crown. Zachary decided in favor 
of Pepin, who, accordingly, ascended the throne, after 
having deposed Childeric, who was sent to end his 
days in a monastery. Pepin thus became the first of a 
race of kings, who occupied the throne of France for 
two hundred and thirty-six years. As a reward to the 
Roman pontiff, Pepin, in A. D. 755, conferred on 
Stephen, the successor of Zachary, several rich pro- 
vinces in Italy, by which gift he was established as a 
temporal monarch. 

205. Charlemagne. Pepin was succeeded in the 
government of France by Charles, who is distinguished 
in history by the name of Charlemagne, or Charles the 
Great. He was by far the greatest monarch of his age, 
and was distinguished as a conqueror and statesman. 
He was engaged in war during most of his reign. He 
successively encountered the Saracens, Huns, and 
Saxons, with whom he had a bloody war of 30 years 
duration. Although allied to the king of the Lombards 
by marriage, yet at the request of the pope, he made 
war upon him, drove him from the throne, and put a 
final period to the Lombard dominion in Italy, A. D. 
774. Charlemagne was accustomed to visit Italy yearly : 
when in Rome for the last time, on Christmas, then the 
first day of the new year, being at mass on his knees 
before the altar, the pope came suddenly behind him, 
and placed on his head the crown of the Cesars. This 
act was followed witft loud acclamations, and Charle- 
magne was consecrated Emperor of the West, A.D. 800. 

204. By what means was the Roman Pontiff estahlished as 
a temporal prince"? 

205. What is said of Charlemagne 1 By whom was he 
crowned emperor of the West 1 Relate the circurastanoes. 



PERIOD IV. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE PREVALENCE OF THE DARK AGES 




Monastic System. — Dark Ages. 

FROM THE CROWNING OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE FIRST CRUSADE. 

(395 YEARS.) 

206. Reign of Charlemagne. The empire of Charle- 
magne, when he was crowned Emperor of the West, 
comprised France, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzer- 
land, a great part of Italy, and part of Spain. He had 
no permanent capital, though Aix-la-Chapelle was, for a 
long time, his favorite residence. Charlemagne, though 
living in a dark age, was an eminent patron of learning, 
and endeavored to dispel the great ignorance which 
then prevailed. He manifested his zeal for religion by 
compelling those whom he subdued, to receive Chris- 
tian baptism, on pain of being either made slaves, or of 
suffering death. His private character is said to have 
been amiable and respectable ; he brought up his sons 
to manly exercises, and his daughters to spinning and 
housewifery, and took delight irf appearing ornamented 
with the productions of his wife and daughters. This 

206. What countries did the empire of Charlemagne em- 
brace ] What is said of Charlemagne, and when did he 
die? 



MODERN HISTORY. -MS 

illustrious monarch died A. D. 814 in the 72d year of 
his age. 

207. Danish invasion of England. England, which 
had been divided into a number of petty sovereignties, 
during more than two centuries, became one entire 
kingdom, in A. D. 827, under Egbert, nearly 400 years 
ifter the first arrival of the Saxons in England. The 
English, now so happily united, enjoyed their prosperi- 
ty but a short period. The piratical Danes, or Normans, 
"vho had molested the English coasts for fifty years, 
«ow became more troublesome. The Danes, then com- 
prehended under the general name of Normans, were 
if Gothic origin, and were driven by Charlemagne into 
Denmark : from this northern part of Europe, they made 
■^eir incursions ; hence the name Normans. In their 
•course, they carried off the goods, the cattle, and even 
^he wretched inhabitants ; and then returning to their 
vessels, sailed to some other quarter, which was not 
«>repared for their reception. The Danes at length be- 
came so formidable, that they obtained possession of 
<ome of the principal places, and established them- 
selves in the country. 

208. Alfred the Great. While the Danes were rava- 
i^ing England, Alfred, called the Great, the sixth king of 
England, for a time successfully defended his country. 
In. one year he defeated the Danes in eight battles, 
when a new irruption of their countrymen forced him 
to solicit a peace, which these pirates interrupted by 
new hostilities. The forces of Alfred were so weakened 
and dispirited, that he was abandoned, and compelled 
to seek his safety for many months, in an obscure part 
of the country, disguised in the dress of a peasant, and 
living in a herdsman's cottage as a servant. It is said, 
that on one occasion, the herdsman's wife ordered him 
to take care of some cakes that were baking by the fire, 

207. When did England become one kingdom 1 Who were 
the Danes, and what is said of them ? 

208. What is said of Alfred] With whom did he seek 
refuge I Relate the anecdote of Alfred and the herdsman's 
wife. 



144» MODERN HISTORY. 

but lie forgot his trust and let them burn ; for this she 
scolded him severely, telling him he would be ready- 
enough to eat, though he would not take the pains to 
turn them. 




herdsman's wife scolding at King Alfred. 



209. Successes of Alfred. The Danes having been 
made careless by their successes, the followers of Alfred 
gained some advantages over them. Alfred hearing of 
this, resolved to make a vigorous effort to obtain his 
crown. He entered the Danish camp in the disguise 
of a harper, and excited so much interest by his mu- 
sical talents, that he was introduced to Guthrum, the 
Danish prince, and remained with him for some days. 
Having obtained a perfect knowledge of their camp and 
unguarded state, he returned to his followers, and with a 
large force attacked the Danes, and obtained a complete 
victory. Alfred then proposed to Guthrum, that he and 
his followers should embrace the Christian religion, 
and join the English in opposing the ravages of the 
Danes. This proposition was accepted ; Guthrum and 
his men were baptized, and settled in England, A. D. 880. 

209- By what means did Alfred get into the Danish camp'? 
What is related of Guthrum, the Danish prince, and his fol- 
lowers 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 145 

210. Character of Alfred. Alfred was one of the 
greatest and best sovereigns that ever sat on a throne. 
The institutions which he founded, are to this day the 
glory of the British nation. He was equally excellent 
in his private and public character, and was distin- 
guished for his personal accomplishments, both of body 
and mind, and is considered the greatest legislator, 
scholar, and warrior of the age in which he lived. 
After having restored tranquillity to his distracted king- 
dom, he employed himself in cultivating the arts of 
peace, and in raising his people from the depths of ig- 
norance, barbarism, and wretchedness. He invited 
learned men from every quarter of Europe to reside in 
his dominions, established schools, and is said to have 
founded the University of Oxford. According to vari- 
ous historians, he divided England into countries, com- 
posed a code of laws, established trial by jury, and for 
the instruction of his people, translated a number of 
works into the Saxon language. , 

211. Conquest of England by the Danes. After the 
death of Alfred his wise institutions were but feebly 
enforced by his successors — disorders sprung up. and 
the nation again began to return to their former barba- 
rism. The Danes renewed their invasions, and ha- 
rassed the kingdom for a long series of years. In 981, 
Swein, king of Denmark, assisted by the king of Nor- 
way, invaded England with a great fleet, won several 
important battles, and would have destroyed London, 
had not Ethelred, the king, purchased their departure 
with a large sum of money. In the year 1002, great 
numbers of the Danes, on a given day, were massacred 
all over the kingdom : to revenge this barbarous mas- 
sacre, Swein again attacked England with a powerful 
army, and after a series of struggles, the English were 

210. State the character of Alfred. What did he do for 
his kingdom 1 

211. After the death of Alfred, what was the state of Eng- 
land 1 What kings invaded England 1 At what time were 
the English conquered 1 

13 



146 MODERN HISTORY. 

conquered, and submitted to the Danish king, Canute, 
A. D. 1017. 

212. Canute and his Successors. Canute having con- 
quered England, became the most powerful monarch of 
his time, being now sovereign of Denmark, Norway, 
and England. Some of his courtiers affected to think 
his power uncontrollable, and that all things would be 
obedient to his command. In order to make them 
ashamed of their folly, he placed himself in a chair by 
the sea side, while the tide was rising. As the waters 
approached, he commanded them to retire and obey the 
voic€ of the mighty Canute ; but the sea still advanced, 
and when it began to wet his feet, he turned to his 
courtiers and reproved them for their impious flattery. 

Canute died in 1035, and the English throne de- 
scended to his two sons, who died soon after their father. 
The kingdom now returned to the Saxon line of kings, 
in the person of Edward, who had been an exile for 
forty years ; he died, however, immediately on his ar- 
rival in England, and Edward, surnamed the Confessor, 
succeeded to the throne. The king died without chil- 
dren, and is said to have bequeathed the crow^n to his 
kinsman, William, Duke of Normandy., in France. The 
English nobles and clergy, however, elected and pro- 
claimed Harold, the son of the Earl of Kent, as king of 
England. 

213. Norman Conquest. [Battle of Hastings.) Wil- 
liam of Normandy now resolved to maintain his claim 
to the crown of England, by force of arms. He made 
the most formidable preparations, and was aided by 
many sovereign princes, and was accompanied by a 
great body of the nobility of the European nations, 

212. Of what countries was Canute the sovereign] What 
did he do to shame his courtiers ] Who were the successors 
of Canute ? Who was William, Duke of Normandy, and who 
was Harold ? 

213. By whom was William of Normandy attended 1 How 
were the armies of William and Harold occupied previous to 
the battle of Hastings ? Stiite the result of the battle. What 
was William called after this period ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 147 

who were soldiers of fortune. William lar ded his 
army, 60,000 in number, on the coast, and met the army 
of Harold at Hastings. On the night previous to the 
battle, the English, flushed with their recent success 
over the Norwegians, and being confident of a new vic- 
tory, spent the night in riot and jollity. The Normans, 
on the other hand, were occupied in prayer and other 
religious duties. In the morning, William ordered the 
\ signal of battle to be given, and his whole army, singing 
the hymn of Roland, the peer of Charlemagne, advanced ^ 
to the attack. After a desperate battle, which lasted 
from morning to sunset, Harold was slain, and his army 
nearly destroyed. The Normans lost 15,000 men. 
William, from this period, was styled Conqueror^ and 
came into possession of the throne of England, and 
was crowned on Christmas day, A. D. 1066. 

214. William the Conqueror. The character of Wil- 
liam was spirited, haughty, and tyrannical, yet not with- 
out a portion of the generous affections. He disgusted 
the English by giving most of the offices of trust and 
importance to his Norman followers. To prevent the 
seditious meetings of his subjects, he ordered a bell, 
called the Curfew bell, to be rung every evening at 8 
o'clock, to warn the people to put out their lights. He 
introduced the French language into court, and ordered 
that all law proceedings should be directed in that tongue. 
By this means, many words of French origin are now 
to be found in the English language. He is said to 
have introduced the feudal system into England. By 
his forest laws he reserved to himself the exclusive 
privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom. One 
of the acts of his reign was his accomplishing a gen- 
eral survey of all the lands in the kingdom, their value, 
the names of the proprietors, and a record of every 
class of persons on them, &lc. This valuable record is 
called the Doomsday hook, which is still preserved. 

214. What was the character of William'? What did he 
do to prevent seditious meetings ? What did he introddce into 
England ] What was called the Doomsday book ? 



148 MODERN HISTORY. 

215. State of the Arts, <Sfc., at the Norman Conquest. 
By the conquest, great changes were etfected in the 
state of England. Many of the Norman nobility and 
common people, settled in England, and' by them the 
agriculture of the country was much improved, by the 
introduction of carts, harrows, sythes, &c. The Nor- 
man plough had two wheels, and was drawn by one or 
more oxen, (ireat improvements were made in the art 
of building, particularly churches and monasteries, 
which were often erected at an immense expense. The 
clergy and monks at this period, possessed the most 
wealth and influence, and their zeal was directed to- 
wards these objects. It was at this time, that the Gothic 
style of building was introduced. The houses of the 
common citizens, however, were very mean. Even in 
London, the houses of mechanics and common bur- 
gesses, were built of wood and thatched with reeds or 
straw, down to the close of the 12th century. Glass 
windows were seen only in churches, or in the man- 
sions of the rich. The dressing and spinr»ing of wool 
and dax were practiced before the conquest ; but these 
arts were greatly improved by the Flemings^ who set- 
tled in England after the conquest. 

216. Norman Nobles, or Barons. William the Con- 
queror introduced into England the feudal law ; di- 
viding the whole kingdom excepting the royal domains, 
into baronies, and bestowing the most of them on his 
Norman followers, under the tenure of military service. 
The Norman barons introduced much splendor and 
magnificence into England. Instead of the mean houses 
in which the English used to spend their nights in 
feasting and revelry, the Norman barons dwelt in stately 
palaces, kept elegant tables, and a splendid equipage. 
As there were no good inns in those times, they were 
obliged, when traveling, to carry their own bedding and 

215. What improvements did the Normans introduce into 
Entrland ? What is said of the houses of the common and 
other citizens ? What is said of the Flemings^ 

2 IB. Wiio introduced the leudal law into England? What 
is said of the Norman barons ? How was a nobleman, or pre- 
late, attended on a journey ? 



f < 



MODERN HISTORY. 149 

provisions. A nobleman, or prelate, when on a jour- 
ney, was attended with a train of servants and attend- 
ants, knights, esquires, pages, clerks, cooks, &c. Many 
of the English nobility, at the present day, trace their 
descent up to their ancestors, the Norman barons. 

217. Baronial Castles^ SfC. During the prevalence 
of the feudal system, murders, robberies, and violence, 
were so common, that the barons of England, as in 
France, erected castles for their residences, of which 
many remain at the present day. Their situation was 
generally on an eminence, and near a river. They sur- 
rounded these structures vvith a deep broad ditch, often- 
times filled with water. Before the great gate was an 
outwork, a strong high wall with turrets upon it, for the 
defense of the gate and draw-bridge over the ditch. 
The walls of the castle were eight or ten feet thick, and 
twenty or thirty feet high. From the top of this wall 
aud from the roofs of the buildings, the defenders dis- 
charged arrows, darts, and stones, upon the assailants. 
Within this outward wall were one or two more, sur- 
rounding the chief tower, four or five stories high, with 
thick walls. This was the residence of the owner of 
the castle. Under the ground a dungeon was built for 
the confinement of prisoners-. Robbery was so common, 
at times, that no person could travel in safety. The 
robbers sometimes formed companies, under powerful 
barons, who shared with them the plunder, and protect- 
ed them in their castles. 

218. Dark Ages. Although the Emperor Charle- 
magne, and Alfred the Great, made many and noble ef- 
forts to enlighten their subjects, yet the darkness and 
superstition of the age proved too powerful for their ex- 
ertions. After they were removed by death, darkness 
returned and prevailed throughout Europe, more or less, 



217. What prevailed during the feudal system^ Why 
were castles built I Give a description of them. What is 
said of robbers ? 

'218. After the death of Charlemagne and Alfred, what was 
the state of Europe! What is said of Christianity during 
these times 1 What is said of the clergy, and of the bishops 1 
13* 



"K 



150 MODERN HISTORY. 

till the fifteenth century. The scarcity of books, in 
those times, and the nature of their subjects, as legends, 
lives of the saints, &c., account in part for such a state 
of things. During this period the human mind appear- 
ed debased, and hardly any thing was too irrational or 
absurd for the credulity of the times. Pure Chris- 
tianity was but little known, amidst a multitude of idle 
ceremonies, external pomp and show. The clergy 
were noted for their luxurious habits, and ignorance. 
Even the higher clergy were so destitute of the first 
rudiments of learning, that it was scarcely disgraceful 
to acknowledge it ; and many bishops, who attended 
councils, (fee, could not even write their names to the 
acts that were passed. 

219. Collection of Relics. In the beginning of the 
ninth century, the passion for collecting the relics of the 
saints arrived at a great height, and many persons of 
distinction traveled into Palestine in order to obtain 
them. The bodies of the apostles, and first martyrs, are 
said to have been dug up, and great quantities of bones 
and other relics, were brought into Europe, and sold for 
enormous prices. Numerous impositions were practised 
in this traffic ; and purchasers seem not to have been 
very nice or scrupulous in their inquiries ; and many a 
devotee has wept over the bones of a dog, or jackall, 
supposing he.^^ad before him the relic of an apostle. 
These relics were supposed to have the power of heal- 
ing diseases, working miracles, &c., and so eager were 
some of the churches to obtain these precious treasures, 
that they would sometimes possess themselves of them 
by violence or theft ; and these attempts, when success- 
ful, were considered as pious and acceptable to the Su- 
preme Being, 

220. Monastic Institutions. During the first ages of 
Christianity, the persecutions attending its profession, 

219. At what time did the passion for collecting relics pre- 
vail ^ Where were these relics obtained, and what were 
they ] What power was it supposed thciv had "? What means 
did some of the churches take to obtain them'? 



MODERN HISTORY. 151 

forced some Christians to retire from the world, and 
live in deserts and places most private and unfrequented, 
in hopes of Hndingthat peace and comfort among beasts 
which was denied them among men. Some very ex- 
traordinary persons having retired in this manner, their 
example gave^ such reputation to retirement, that the 
practice was continued when there was no reason for it. 
After Christianity became the religion of the Roman 
empire, it was considered to be highly meritorious for a 
person to abandon all human connections and concerns, 
and to afflict the body with fastings, penances, &c. To 
drag out a life of suffering was considered as an act 
most acceptable to the Deity. The first monks were 
the followers of St. Anthony, of Egypt, who, near the 
close of the fourth century, formed themselves into a 
regular body, and engaged to live by certain rules. 

221. Progress of the Monastic Sy stein. The exam- 
ple of Anthony was followed to such an extent, that in a 
short time the whole East was filled with a set of indo- 
lent mortals. In Egypt where the Mahometan religion 
has prevailed for centuries, the remains of numerous 
Christian monasteries are still to be seen. From the 
East, this gloomy disposition passed into Europe, and 
very soon all Christendom became infected with this 
superstition ; and various orders of monks and friars 
were instituted — such as Dominicans, B^cdictines, &c. 
This kind of life was not confined t(jmales ; female? 
also began to retire from the world, and dedicate them- 
selves to solitude and devotion. These female devo- 
tees were called nit7is, and the establishments in which 
they were secluded, nunneries. At the period of the 
dark ages, the monastic system arrired ai its height: 
even kings and great lords, unmindful of their duties to 

220. What first caused Christians to retire from the world? 
How was it when Christianity was the religion of the empire I 
Who were the first monks 1 

221. Where was the example of Anthony followed ' What 
are the names of some of the monkish orders ] What are 
nuns, and nunneries 1 



152 MODERN HISTORY. 

society, sought in these abodes an asyl im from the 
cares and temptations of the world. 

222. Corruption of the Monastic System. The origi a- 
al rules of the monastic life were strict, but they fell 
gradually into disuse. The monasteries daily increased 
in wealth, by donations from the rich, who were in the 
habit, just before death, of bestowing their property on 
these institutions, supposing that by this means they 
would secure the salvation of their souls. The monks 
now found themselves in a condition to claim high sta- 
tions in worldly society. Many of their monasteries 
appeared more like the palaces of princes, stored with 
luxuries, than as the retreats of penitence and mortifica- 
tion. Before the close of the fifth century, the monks 
became notorious for their licentiousness, and often ex- 
cited the most dreadful tumults and disorders in vari- 
ous places. In the eighth century, the monastic disci- 
pline was extremely relaxed, both in the eastern and 
western provinces, and all efforts to restore it were in- 
effectual. The monks were generally lazy, illiterate, 
profligate, and licentious epicures. 

223. Increase of the Papal Power. The influence of 
the pope, during the dark ages, and for a long period 
afterwards, was far greater than that of any other mon- 
arch in Christendom : he claimed authority over kings 
and kingdoms, and assumed the title of master of the 
world. If a sovereign offended him, his whole king- 
dom was liable to be laid under an interdict, during 
which the celebration of public worship was suspended, 
and the churches shut up ; no sacrament, except bap- 
tism and extreme unction, were administered, and the 
dead were buried in the highways, without funeral rites. 
In the eleventh century, when Gregory VII. occupied 
the papal chair, he excommunicated and deposed Henry 

222. How were the monasteries increased in wealth ? 
What is said of monasteries, and the character of the monks.? 

223. What is said of the influence and authority of the 
popes 1 What was an interdict "? What did Pope Gregory 
compel Henry, the emperor of G ermany, to do ? 



MODERN HISTORy. 153 

IV., emperor of Germany, and compelled him to appear 
before him as a penitent sinner, and in the depth of 
winter to pass three days in the open air, with his head 
and feet bare, before he would grant him absolution. 
This pontiff said in several of his letters, that " it was 
his duty to pull down the pride of kings." 

224. Of the Clergy. The .vecw/ar c/^ro-y, during this 
period, who had the care of parishes, and whose business 
it was to instruct the people, were destitute of almost 
«very qualification for their sacred office. They seldom 
preached, for scarcely any of them knew how to read or 
write. In the r2th, 13th, and 14th centuries, the sacred 
scriptures were but little known, and many bishops had 
never seen a Bible during their lives. The sermons of 
those who undertook to preach, were principally made of 
legends and absurd stories, relating to the lives and ex- 
ploits of the saints. By degrees public instruction was 
mostly given up ; and it was generally held, that to re- 
peat a few forms in rapid succession, observe the holy 
days, go pilgrimages, and to pay tithes, &c., to the cler- 
gy, was all that was necessary to make a good Christian. 

225. State of Learning. In these dark and misera- 
ble times, learning was as much corrupted and obscured 
as religion. The little which existed, was chiefly em- 
ployed about the life and miracles of the saints, and 
other subjects of no utility. The questions which com- 
manded attention were of the most trifling and absurd 
character, and the discussions were specimens of folly. 
The establishment of monasteries, although pernicious in 
other respects, performed an important service to htera- 
ture, and for ages they were the abode of what little 
learning remained in the Christian world. The monks 
being confined to the monasteries, had more opportuni- 
ties for study, and fewer for dissipation, and were not in 
general sunk so low in ignorance as the secular clergy. 

224. What is said of the secular clergy \ The bishops \ 
What of the sermons of those who preached ? What was con- 
sidered necessary to make a Christian I 

225. What was the state of learning ] How did r lonasteries 
perform service to literature ? 



154 MODERN HISTURV. 

But the most im])ortant services the monasteries per- 
formed, was their being a safe repository for books ; 
and some of the higher order of monks made manuscript 
copies of the choicest works of Greece and Rome, and 
by this means ahnost all the ancient learning and manu- 
scripts which have reached us, were preserved. 

226. Trials by Ordeal. During the dark ages, trials 
by ordeal were very common, and were sanctioned by 
the public laws of most countries of Europe. The crim- 
inal was ordered by the judge to prove his innocence or 
guilt by the ordeal of cold water, of boiling water, or 
red-hot iron. The ordeal by cold water, was as follows : 
the person to be tried was conducted to the church, and 
most solemnly adjured to confess the fact if he was guilty. 
If he would not confess, he received the sacrament and 
then was conducted to a river or lake. The priest then 
exorcised the water, charging it not to receive the crim- 
inal if he was guilty. The criminal was now stripped 
naked, and bound, and a rope was tied to him : he was 
then cast into the water ; if he floated, he was account- 
ed guilty ; but if he sunk to the depth marked on the 
rope, (sometimes a yard and a half,) he was instantly 
drawn out and pronounced innocent. In the ordeal of 
boiling water, the criminal was made to thrust his hand 
and arm into boiling water, and take a ring or stone from 
the bottom of the vessel in which it was contained. In 
the ordeal of hot iron, he was made to walk bare-footed 
over red-hot ploughshares, or hold red-hot iron in his 
hands. History records examples when these experi- 
ments were undergone without injury or pain. 

227. Trial by Combat. The trial by combat origina- 
ted among the northern barbarians, before the Christian 
era. Many of these barbarous tribes, when they em- 
braced Christianity, still continued many of the savage 
customs and laws of their ancestors, although entirely 

226. By whom were trials by ordeal sanctioned 1 Describe 
the ordeal by cold water, the ordeal by boiling water, and the 
ordeal of hot iron. 

227 How did the trial by combat originate ] What is said 
respecting these trials ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 155 

contrary to the spirit and precepts of the Christian reli- 
gion. The trial by combat was a mode of settling pri- 
vate disputes and quarrels between individuals, when 
there was not sufficient evidence to make the case clear. 
The judge appointed the time for the combat and presi- 
ded over it. The parties deposited with the judge, 
bonds or goods, for paying the forfeiture and fees of the 
court, in case they were cast. The knights fought on 
horseback, and coijimon men fought on foot. Certain 
persons, as women, priests, and others, might employ 
champions to fight in their stead. The judicial combat, 
though sanctioned by high authority, even so late as the 
last century, in France and England, was a bloody and 
iniquitous custom, from which, to this day, may be traced 
the savage custom of duelling. 

228. Peter the Hermit. Peter the Hermit, the first 
mover of the Crusades, was a gentleman of Amiens, in 
France, who left the military profession to become a 
hermit and pilgrim. He was led to this course by the 
belief which then prevailed throughout Christendom, at 
the close of the 11th century, that the world was near 
its end. He with many others hastened to the Holy 
Land, in A. D. 1093, that he might terminate his days 
in a spot which had given birth to the Saviour of the 
world. Such, however, was the cruel treatment that the 
Christian pilgrims received from the Turks, who had 
Jerusalem and the Holy Land in their possession, that 
Peter returned, to arouse all Europe for the deliverance 
of the Holy city from the hands of the infidels. Having 
received the sanction of Pope Urban IL, Peter traveled 
from city to city, and from kingdom to kingdom, and 
succeeded in arousing all classes of men to undertake 
this holy warfare. 

228. Who was Peter the Hermit 1 When did Peter go to 
the Holy Land, and for what purpose 1 Why did Peter return 
to Europe, and for what purpose? 



PERIOD V. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE CRUSADES 




Christendom excited to the Crusades. 

FROM THE FIRST TO THE LAST CRUSADE. 

(300 YEARS.) 

229. First Crusade. The attention of all Christendoni 
having been fully aroused, by Peter the Hermit, to the 
subject of recovering the Holy Land from the infidels. 
Pope Urban called a general council, at Clermont, in 
France, A. D. 1095, in order to make a final decision. 
An immense multitude assembled. Urban and Peter ad- 
dressed the assembled crowds : the horrors and indigni- 
ties of the infidel oppressions, the duty of arming in the 
holy cause, and the reward of those who were slain in 
fighting the battles of the Lord, were set forth with such 
effect, that they all, as one man, sent forth the shout, " It 
is the will of God I It is the will of God .'" Persons of 
all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardor. Eter- 
nal salvation was promised to all who should come forth 
to the help of the Lord, in this holy warfare. All men 

229. Where did Pope Urban call a general council, and for 
what purpose 1 Who addressed the multitude, and what did 
the crowd do 1 What was promised to those who engaged in 
the crusades 1 Who engaged in these expeditions'? 



MODERN HISTORY. 157 

now deemed the crusades the road to heaven and were 
impatient to open the way with their swords to the holy- 
city. Nobles, artisans, peasants, and even priests, en- 
rolled thoir names ; and to decline this service was con- 
sidered impious and cowardly. The aged and infirm 
contributed by presents and money, and many attended 
in person, being determined, if possible, to breathe their 
last in sight of the holy city. Even women, concealing 
their sex under the disguise of armor, attended the camp. 
Robbers, incendiaries, and murderers, embraced this 
opportunity to expiate their sips, and secure a place in 
heaven. 

230. March of the Crusaders. The middle of August, 
A. D. 1096, was the time fixed for the departure of the 
crusaders ; but so eager were the common people to go 
forward, that they made no suitable preparation for the 
undertaking, and took their departure early in the spring. 
Peter the Hermit assumed the office of general, and led 
on an army of 80,000 recruits towards the East. This 
army was followed by a mixed multitude of 200,000 
persons, more like banditti than a regular body of sol- 
diers. Subject to little control, their route was marked 
with various outrages, particularly against the Jews, 
thousands of whom they murdered. Their outrages in 
Hungary and Bulgaria drew upon them a severe re- 
taliation from the inhabitants ; so that not more than one 
third of this multitude arrived at Constantinople. These 
were met soon after by the sultan. Soli/man, on the plain 
of Nice, and almost wholly destroyed, without ever 
having seen Jerusalem. 

231. March of the main body of the Crusaders. After 
the march of Peter, a formidable body of disciplined 
troops followed, being led on by able and experienced 
generals. The supreme command was given to God- 

230. Who led on the first crusaders 1 By whom was this 
army followed ? What became of them f 

231. By vi^hom was the main body of the crusaders com- 
manded, and how many were they ? Where w<!re the (^Jhris- 
tians besieged, and by what means did they defeat theii 
enemies'? 

14 



158 MODERN HISTORY. 

frey^ of Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, and was supported 
by the most distint^uished princes of Europe, who served 
in the army. When reviewed, in the neighborhood 
of Nice, they amounted to 100,000 horse and 600,000 
foot, including a train of women and children. Having 
taken Nice and defeated Solyman, they proceeded east- 
ward, and took the city of Antioch. Their successes 
having alarmed the Mahometan powers, the Christians 
were besieged in Antioch, by an army of 300,000 men. 
The most terrible famine prevailed in the army of the 
crusaders, and their nu^ibers were reduced far below 
that of the besieging army. Recourse was now had to 
superstition. A monk declared, that it was revealed to 
him that he could find where the lance which pierced 
our Saviour's side was buried ; and that when this relic 
was obtained, it would insure their victory. The lance 
was found ; the crusaders rushed out upon the infidels, 
who fought bravely and obstinately, till the Christian 
soldiers cried out, that the saints were seen fighting on 
their side. This gave them resistless might : the infi- 
dels fied in confusion, with the loss of 69,000 men, 
while that of the crusaders did not amount to one sixth 
of that number. 

232. Taking of Jerusalem. The army of the crusa- 
ders, by the sword, famine, and pestilence, was reduced 
to about 60,000 men, when they arrived at Jerusalem. 
They, however, made the most incredible exertions to 
obtain possession of the city, and after a siege of forty 
days, took it by storm. The whole of its Mahometan 
and Jewish inhabitants were put to death. The crusa- 
ders were guilty of the most shocking barbarities : the 
inhabitants were massacred without mercy, and without 
distinction of age or sex. These ferocious conquerors 
and blind enthusiasts, after this terrible slaughter, march- 
ed over heaps of dead bodies, towards the holy sepul- 
cher, and, while their hands were polluted with the 

232. How many crusaders arrived at Jerusalem, and how 
did they take it 1 What did they do, after taking possession 1 
Who was proclaimed king of Jerusalem I 



MODERN HISTORY. 159 

blood of SO "many innocent victims, sung anthems to the 
common Saviour ot" mankind. Godfrey was now pro- 
claimed king of Jerusalem, by the troops, and he soon 
after defeated the sultan, with an innnense army but 
after having reigned one year, he was compelled to give 
up his kingdom to the pope's legate. 

233. Second Crusade. The crusaders divided Syria 
and Palestine into four separate states, and having ac- 

, complislied their object, began to return to Europe. 
The Turks began now to recover their strength : and 
the newly-formed Christian states in Asia found it 
necessary to solicit aid from Europe. The second 
crusade set out from the West in 1J46, to the amount 
of 200,000 French, Germans, and Italians, led on by 
Hugh, brother to the king of France. These met with 
the same fate which attended Peter the Hermit. The 
garrison of Jerusalem now became so weak, that the 
monks armed themselves for its defense : hence arose 
the military orders of Knights Templars, &c. The 
pope now employed St, Bernard to preach up a new 
crusade in France ; and Louis VII., of France, and 
Conrad III., of Germany, with 300,000 of their sub- 
jects, wer^ persuaded to engage in this expedition. 
The Germans were cut to pieces by the sultan at Ico- 
nium ; the French were totally defeated near Laodicea ; 
and the two monarchs, alter many disasters, returned 
with shame to their dominions. 

234. Third Crusade. The occasion o: the third 
crusade was the conquest of Jerusalem by the illustrious 
Saladin, nephew of the sultan of Egypt, in A. D. 1 187, 
after it had been in the possession of the Christians 
about 90 years. Pope Clement, alarmed at the success 
of the intidels, stirred up a new crusade, in which 

233. When did the second erusade set out "? How many 
men. by whom commanded, and what was their fate 1 Who 
was employea tu preach up a new crusade ? Who went on 
this expedition 1 VVhat is said of them ? 

234. What was the occasion of the third criisadel What 
sovereigns enjjaged in it, and what is said of them 1 Who 
defeated Saladin ? What was done to Richard^ on his return '^ 



160 MODERN HISTORY. 

three sovereigns took the field with their subjects, 
namely: Philip Augustus, of France, Richard /., oi 
England, and Frederic Barbarossa, of Germany. This 
latter sovereign defeated the Turks in a general battle, 
but he soon after died, and his army dw^indled aw^ay. 
Richard and Philip took Ptolemais ; but they soon 
quarreled, from a jealousy of each other's glory, and 
Philip returned in disgust to France. Richard (sur- 
named the Lion-hearted) nobly sustained the contest 
with Saladin, whom he defeated near Ascalon ; but on 
account of dissensions in his camp, and the reduction 
of his army by famine and fatigue, he thought it prudent 
not to attempt the siege of Jerusalem, but concluded a 
truce with ISaladin for three years. While returning 
home to England, he was arrested in Germany, and 
kept in prison till he was ransomed with an immense 
sum by his subjects. 

235. Fourth Crusade. In 1202, Baldwi?i, count oi 
Flanders, collected an army to act against the Mahom- 
etans, in a fourth crusade, it is said, however, that his 
real object was not the extirpation of the infidels, but 
the conquest of Constantinople, the head of the eastern 
Ciiristian empire. Baldwin arrived at Cor*6tantinople 
at a lime when there was a dispute respecting the suc- 
cession to the throne. After one or two revolutions in 
the government, the allied army of the French and 
Venetians determined to seize the city on their own 
account. This, after a severe struggle, was effected. 
The army of the invaders consisted of but 20,000 men, 
while there were in Constantinople 400,000 men capa- 
ble of bearing arms, and the city was at this time the 
largest and most splendid in the world. To the infamy 
of the followers of Baldwin, they destroyed most of the 
noble monuments ot genius which had been preserved 
from ancient times. In no conquered city, it is thought, 

235. Who engaged in the fourth crusade ] What is said 
to have been his real object ? Did he effect it ? What is said 
of the followers of Baldwin] What became of Balawin and 
his empire ] 



MODERN HISTORY. 161 

s» 

was there ever so much booty obtained. Baldwin was 
elected emperor, but was murdered after reigning a few 
months : the imperial dominions were then shared 
among his principal followers. From the time of Bald- 
win, the spirit of crusading remained at rest for nearly 
half a century, when it revived under Louis IX., of 
France 

236. Chivalry, or Knighthood. Chivalry was an in- 
stitution which had for its principal object the correc- 
tion of the evils which prevailed in the state of society 
during the prevalence of the feudal system among the 
European nations. Chivalry attained its greatest height 
and perfection during the time of the crusades ; and 
during the several centuries it prevailed, it had a very 
great influence on the opinions, habits, and manners of 
mankind. The origin of this spirit may be traced to the 
manners and customs of the Gothic nations, among 
whom the profession of arms was the only employment 
esteemed honorable. Chivalry was distinguished for a 
romantic spirit of adventure ; a love of arms, and the 
rewards of valor ; and eagerness to protect the op- 
pressed ; to avenge wrongs ; high sentiments of honor 
and religion ; and especially a devoted and respectful 
attachment to the female sex. 

237. Education of Knights. The sons of noblemen 
who were destined for chivalry, at the age of seven 
years, entered on a course of education, which was to 
prep^e them for the performance of its duties and en- 
joyments of its honors. They were educated at their 
father's castle, or that of some nobleman in the vicinity. 
From the age of 7 to 14 the name given to these boys 
was valet^ or page: they were kept in active employ- 
ment, and became accustomed to the duties of obedi- 
ence and courtesy, by waiting on the master and mis- 

236, What was the object of chivalry, and when did it at- 
tain to its greatest height? What was the origin of this spirit, 
and for what was it distinguished ? 

237. At what age did the knights begin their education ! 
When was the name varlet or page given ] What was their 
employment, and what were thev taught ? 

14* 



162 MODERN HISTORY. 

m 

tress of the castle, at home or abroad. By the ladies 
of the castle they were taught at the same time the ru- 
diments of religion and devotion to the female sex, and 
the first impressions made on their minds were those 
of love, gallantry, honor, and bravery. They were 
taught that the only means of attaining the highest 
honors, were respectful devotion to the ladies, and skill 
and courage in warfare. In order that they might prac- 
tice in some degree the instructions they received, it 
was customary for each youth to select some young, ac- 
complished, and virtuous lady, at whose feet he dis- 
played his gallantry, and who' undertook to refine and 
polish his manners. 

238. Of the Esquires. At the age of fourteen, the 
pages received the title of armiger, or esquire, and were 
then authorized to bear arms : his education, however, 
was not completed until he was twenty-one years of age. 
The esquire prepared the repast in the morning ; at din- 
ner, he, as well as the pages, attended at the table, and 
presented to the lord and his guests the water used for 
washing. The knights and esquires never sat at the 
same table, not even in the case of a father and son. 
The esquires often made the beds of their lords ; each 
of them had their respective duties, such as the squire 
of the chamber, the carrying squire, &c. They prac- 
ticed every exercise by which strength and activity 
could be given to the body ; they learned to endure 
hunger and thirst, and accustomed themselves to'wield 
.the sword, thrust the lance, strike with the ax, and to 
wear armor; no exercise, however, was more important 
than that of horsemanship. 

239. Of the Knights. The full dignity of knighthood 
was seldom conferred on a squire before the age of 
twenty-one. To prepare for this honor they were 
obliged to submit to severe fastings, to spend nights in 

238. At the age of 14, what title did the pages receive 1 
What were the duties of the esquires 1 What were their ex- 
ercises ■? 

239. How was the esquire prepared for the dignity of knight- 



MODERN HISTORY. 



163 



j>rayer in a church, to receive the sacrament, to bathe, to 
put on white robes, confess their sins, auu hear sermons, 
in which Christian morals were enforced ariu explained. 
The candidate then took an oath, consistini^ of 26 arti- 
cles, in which, among other things, he swore he would 
be a good, brave, loyal, just, generous, and gentle knight, 
a champion of the church and clergy, a protector of the 
ladies, and a redresser of the wrongs of widows and 




A Knight in Armor. 

orphans. While on his knees he received from the 
hands of the knights and larlies the various parts of his 
armor, and hi the last place his sword. The concluding 
sign of being dabhnd, or adopted into the order of 
knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord, on the 
neck or cheek ; he was then proclaimed a knight, " in 
the name of God and the Saints." 

240. Character, c^-c. of the Knights. The character 
of a true knight, although containing many defects, was 
distinguished by much tkat was praiseworthy and noble. 
His whole course was directed by a regard to religion ; 

hood 1 What did he take an oath to be 1 What was the con- 
cludins siiin of beina: adopted a knight! 

240." What is said of the character of the kuights ] What 
were Itis privileges ] 



164 MODERN HISTORY. 

thougli it must be confessed, thatth(5 religion of the times 
consisted mo- e in form, than in spirit, 'ilie knight was 
distinguished for his perfect fidelity to his word, his 
modesty, generosity, and courtesy. By being dubbed 
a knight, he was invested with many privileges and 
dignities which were not limited to his own country, 
but extended throughout a great part of Europe. He 
had a right to roam through the world in search of ad- 
ventures, and was authorized to propose a trial of skill 
with the lance, to all of his own order he met, and to 
combat them with fury, if they did not acknowledge the 
lady to whom he had devoted himself, to be the most 
beautiful in the world. In war, when the sovereign led 
his army to the attack, his never-failing injunction was, 
" Let every one think of his mistress." 

241. Of Tournaments. Tournaments were military 
exercises, performed by two parties of knights or cava- 
liers. No amusement was so delighted in, by the gal- 
lant knights or beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobility, 
and gentry, as these images of war. These exhibitions 
were often splendid, far beyond any thing seen at the 
present age, especially at coronations, the marriage of 
princes, victories, &c. No knight who had blasphemed 
God, or offended the ladies, or had been false or un- 
grateful, was allowed to enter these contests At the 
tournament, the space inclosed within the lists was sur- 
rounded by sovereign princes, nobles, knights of renown, 
and all that rank and beauty had distinguished among 
the fair. Covered with armor, and known only by their 
emblazoned shields, the combatants rushed forward to 
a strife, without enmity, but not without danger The 
ladies were the supreme judges of the tournaments, and 
victory little less glorious, and perhaps, at the moment, 
more deeply felt than in the field, si) ce no battle could 
assemble such witnesses of valor. 

242. Orders of Knighthood. The orders of chivalrv, 



241. What were tournaments'? What is said of these ex.- 
hibitionsl What knights could not enter these contest* \ 
Describe them. 



MODERN HISTORY. 165 

or knighthood, were of two general descriptions viz 
religious and military. Some ot the religious orders 
were those of Templars, St. James, Alcantrava, the lady 
of Mercy, and St. Michael. In the religious orders, the 
cavaliers, or knights, were bound by the three great mo- 
nastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. The 
military orders were imitations of the religious. Those 
of the Garter, the Golden fleece^ and St. Michael, in 
France, were clearly of chivalric origin : many others, 
which now exist in Europe, cannot boast of such a de- 
scent. All these various orders had particular rules, 
by which they professed to be governed, but they varied 
with the spirit of the times. The Knight Templars^ 
who became quite famous, were founded by Baldwin^ 
king of Jerusalem, for the defense of the holy sepulcher, 
and protection of the Christian pilgrims. After the 
ruin of Jerusalem, about 1186, they spread themselves 
throughout Europe, and flourished for a considerable 
period, but as their prosperity increased they became 
corrupted, till their vices were such, that the order was 
suppressed. 

2i3. Effects of Chivalry. Absurd as chivalry was 
in some respects, it had a powerful influence in chang- 
ing the manners of society in a barbarous age. It re- 
fined the manners, promoted the social intercourse, ant 
softened in many respects, the horrors of war. By thin- 
ning the ranks of robbers and ruffians, it added to the 
safety and order of society. A nice sense of honor, 
and a strict regard to truth, was cherished by its maxims. 
But perhaps the most important efl^ect of this institution, 
was the delicate and respectful attention paid to woman, 
whereby they were delivered from the degradation so 
comm(m in savage and barbarous nations. In short, it 
was a great corrector of the evils of the feudal system, 
haughtiness, tyranny, o[)pression, and misrule. Itcan- 

•24-2. What were the names of some of the religious orders 
of knighthood 1 By what vows were they hound ] What is 
said ofthe !!;ilitary orders? What of the knight Templars'? 

243. What'was the influence of chivalry ! What was one 
of the most important effects of this institution ? 



166 MODERN HISTORY. 

not be denied, however, that the principles of chivalry, 
like other institutions, were much superior to the prac- 
tice of its professors, and that it fell far short of preserv- 
ing purity. The poetry and tales of those times, afford 
evidence of a low slate of morals. 

244. Henry II. of England. Henry II., the first o) 
the Plantagenets, being descended by his grandmothei 
from the Saxon kings, and by his mother from the Nor 
man family, succeeded to the throne, to the great satis- 
faction of the pation. He was the most powerful sove- 
reign in Christendom : in addition to England he owned, 
by inheritance and marriage, nearly one half of France, 
and afterwards claimed Ireland by conquest. Some of 
the most remarkable circumstances in his reign, relate 
to his contests with Thomas Becket, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. During the preceding reign, the power of the 
clergy had increased to a great height ; they were also 
very corrupt in their morals, and committed, without re- 
straint, the most enormous crimes. It is related, that it 
was proved, in the presence of the king, that more than 
one hundred murders had been committed by ecclesias- 
tics, not one of whom had been punished. Henry re- 
solved to reform these abuses, but he met with the most 
determined opposition from Becket, who contended that 
the clergy were not subject to the civil power. 

245. Murder of Becket. After a long series of con- 
tests with this haughty prelate, Henry was so exaspe- 
rated by his audacious conduct, that he rashly exclaim- 
ed, in the midst of his courtiers : " What ! is there none 
that will avenge me of that insolent priest ?" Four 
knights of his household, taking this expression to be a 
hint for the primate's death, proceeded to the cathedral, 
and assassinated Becket before the altar. Nothing 
could exceed the consternation of the king at this event ; 

244. What is said of Henry H.l What is said of the cler- 
gy, and what was proved against them 1 Who opposed Henry 
in reforming abuses ] 

245. Relate the cause and manner of Becket'sileath. What 
did Henry do 1 What did the pope do respecting Becket, and 
what is said respecting his tomb ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 167 

and in order to avert the resentment of the pope, did 
penance at the tomb of Becket, with fasting and prayer, 
and even presented his bare shoidders to the monks, to 
be scourged by a knotted cord. Becket was canonized 
by the pope, as a saint, by the title of St. Thomas, oj 
Canterbury, and miracles were pretended to be wrought 
at his tomb ; and at the jubilee, which was observed once 
in fifty years, 100,000 pilgrims are said to have been 
present on a pilgrimage to his tomb. 

246 Magna Charta. John, the king of England, 
having made Pope Innocent 111. his enemy, by appro- 
priating some of the treasures of the church to his own 
purposes, felt the weight of the papal power. His king- 
dom was laid under an interdict, he was excommunica- 
ted, and his subjects absolved from their allegiance. 
The wretched monarch was brought into submission, 
and on his knees he solemnly agreed to hold his king- 
dom subject to the authority of the pope. His subjects 
thus trampled upon and sold, resolved to maintain their 
rights. The barons assembled, and binding themselves 
by an oath to a concert of measures, demanded from the 
king a ratification of the charter of privileges granted 
by Henry I. John refused, till resort was had 'to the 
sword : by this means he was compelled to yield to 
their demands, and on the 19th of June, 1215, signed 
that solemn charter, called the magna charta, or the 
great charter, which is considered the great bulwark 
and foundation of English liberty. 

This charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of 
which the following were the most important, viz. : that 
no aid or money should be drawn from the people, un- 
less in a few special cases, without the consent of the 
great council of the nation ; that no person shall be tried 
on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful wit- 
nesses ; and that no person shall be tried or punished, 

246. What was the cause of John, king of England, having 
the kingdom laid under an interdict ? How did the barons 
obtain a charter ] What was it called, and how considered \ 
What were some of the provisions of the charter ] 



168 MODERN HISTORY. 

except by the judgment of his peers, (persons of the* 
same rank with himself,) and the law of the land. John 
granted at the same time, the charter of the forest, which 
abolished the exclusive right of the king to kill game all 
over the kingdom. 

247. Of the Inquisition. The formidable tribunal, 
called the Inquisition, was instituted about the year 1204, 
by Pope Innocent, in order to punish and examine here- 
tics, as all those who differed from the Roman church 
were called. The increase of the Waldenses, at this 
period, seems to have been the immediate cause of the 
establishment of the inquisition. The Waldenses were 
the followers of Peter Waldo, a merchant of Lyons, in 
France, who being animated with uncommon zeal for 
the advancement of piety and Christian knowledge, be- 
gan, in 1180, as a public teacher, to instruct the multi- 
tude. His efforts were crowned with great success, 
and spread into the neighboring countries. In order to 
crush this heresy, as it is called, the pope issued orders 
to the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics, 
to search into their number and quality, and transmit a 
faithful account thereof to Rome. Hence they were 
called mquisitors, and gave birth to the terrible tribunal 
called the inquisition. 

248. Establishment of the Inquisition. At first the 
inquisitors had no tribunals, but they soon, how-ever, had 
power given them to punish, in any manner they thought 
proper, all those brought before them. Dominic, a de- 
scendant from an illustrious Spanish family, and founder 
of the order of Dominicans, was appointed the chief in- 
quisitor. From his early years, he was educated for 
the priesthood, and is represented to have been fiery 
and bloody in his disposition and character. In the 
course of a fow years the system was brought to matu- 

247. When was the inquisition instituted, and for what pur- 
pose ] Who were the Waldenses 1 Who were the inquisi- 
tors^ 

248. What is said of Dominic, the inquisitor 1 At what time 
was the inquisition generally held 1 What is said of this tri- 
bunal 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 169 

rity ; and branches of the " Holy Inquisition" were es- 
tablished in almost every province in Europe, where 
people were suspected of heresy. Their tribunals were 
held in the night, or in some retired apartment, from 
which the light of day was excluded. No man, how- 
ever exalted his station, was secure from their sum- 
mons. The hour of midnight was generally selected to 
demand the presence of an accused person. Wherever 
this tribunal exercised its full power, the people stood 
in so much fear of it, that parents delivered up their 
children, husbands their wives, and masters their ser- 
vants, to its officers, without daring to murmur, or make 
the least resistance. Few who once entered the gloomy 
walls of the inquisition, ever returned ; or if they were 
released, they never dared to whisper what they had 
soen or heard within those prisons of death. 

249. Scriptural Plays. Before the invention of the 
art of printing, it was quite common in most countries 
of Europe to have the various scenes described in the 
Bible, acted out by theatrical companies, who visited the 
various towns and villages for that purpose. Not only 
were the first parents of mankind, the patriarchs, apos- 
tles, angels and demons, represented on the stage, but 
even representations of God the Father, of Christ, and 
of the Holy Ghost. Such was the passion of the peo- 
ple for these religious shows, (or mysteries as they were 
usually called) they became important subjects for regu- 
lation by law. Sometimes a single play occupied several 
days ; and not unfrequently embraced the story of both 

he Old and New Testament, from the creation to the 
lay of judgment. Such was the ignorance of the com- 
non people at this period, that many persons derived 

most of their knowledge of the transactions recorded in 

the Bible, by means of these plays. 

250. Genghis Khan. In the beginning of the thir- 

249. At what time were Scriptural plays performed in Eu- 
rope 1 What was represented \ How long did they some- 
times continue ] What is said of the ignorance of the people 
at this time 1 

15 ♦ 



170 MODERN HISTORY. 

teenth century, Genghis, the son of a barbarian chief, 
who reigned over a few hordes of Tartars, appeared as 
a conqueror, in the heart of Asia. The death of his 
father induced a revolt of his subjects, and at the age of 
thirteen, Genghis fought a battle with the rebels ; he 
was, however, compelled to flee, but his youthful spirit 
acquired him renown. By degrees he gained control, 
until he was proclaimed the Great Khan, or prince of 
the Moguls and Tartars. He led a vast army against 
the Chinese — passed the great wall, and destroyed a 
multitude of cities ; and the Chinese emperor, in order 
to have him depart, agreed to pay him tribute. In the 
second expedition, he conquered the northern part of 
China, and added it to his dominions. With 700,000 
Moguls and Tartars, he now advanced towards the do- 
minions of the Mahometan sultan in the West. In his 
advance towards Europe, nations and kingdoms were 
laid waste and destroyed ; and it is said, that five cen- 
turies were not sufficient to repair the ravages of four 
years. Gienghis Khan died in the midst of his con- 
quests, A. D. 1227, and his successors conquered near 
the whole of Asia, and a portion of Europe. 

251. End of the Saracen Empire. Bagdad continued 
to be the seat of the Saracen empire 490 years, during 
which time it sustained several obstinate sieges, and 
was the scene of many bloody revolutions. The later 
califs, in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not 
the warlike sovereigns which their predecessors had 
been. They thought only of securing their ease and 
pleasure. Al Mostasem, the last calif, exceeded all 
others in pride and display. When he appeared in 
public, he was usually veiled, in order to attract the at- 
tention of fhe people, whom he considered unworthy to 
look at him. On these occasions, a great price was 
given for the privilege to stand at a window, or in a 

250. Who was Genghis Khan 1 Where did he make his 
conquests I What is said of his ravages 1 

251. How long was Bagdad the seat of the Saracen em- 
pire \ What is said of Al Mostasem, the last calif! When 
was Bagdad taken, and by whom \ 



MODERN HISTORY, 171 

balcony, for the purpose of seeing him as he passed, and 
scarcely any thing could exceed the eagerness of the 
people to catch a sight of their sovereign. In A. D. 
1258, Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of 
Genghis Khan, and Al Mostasem was confined in a 
leathern sack, and dragged about the city till he expired. 
Hulaku gave up the city, which contained immense 
treasures, to be pillaged by his troops, for seven days. 
By this event the empire of the Saracens was terminated. 

252. Empire of the Assassins. This singular sect 
(from which the word assassin is derived) was formed 
in the eleventh century, the object of which was to ex- 
pel the Mahometan religi(m and government, by estab- 
lishing an empire of their own. 'J'he founder of this 
society, which for more than a century and a half filled 
Asia with terror and dismay, was Hassan Ben Sahab. 
In possession of a strong fortress in Persia, Hassan or- 
ganized his band of followers, whose daggers spread 
the terror of his power throughout Asia. All those 
governors and princes who would not submit to his au- 
thority, were generally assassinated by his devoted fol- 
lowers. After a reign of 35 years, Hassan saw his 
power extended over a great part of the Mahometan em- 
pire, which continued under his successors, till they 
were overthrown by the Tartars. 

253. Method of making Assassins. Hassan had three 
classes of followers, the third of which were the blind and 
willing instruments of their superiors, and, regardless 
of their own lives, executed their bloody mandates. If 
they perished in executing their orders, it was repre- 
sented to them that they would immediately enter para- 
dise. When the chief had noticed any youth whom he 
wished to employ as an assassin, he invited him to a 
feast, and placing himself beside him, he conversed on 

252. When was the sect of the assassins formed, and for 
what object ] Who was its founder ] How long did his so- 
ciety, or empire, exist ] 

253. How many classes of followers did Hassan have, and 
what is said of the third class ? Give an account of the de- 
ception practiced to make assassins. 



172 MODERN HISTORY. 

the happiness reserved for the faithful, and contrived to 
administer an intoxicating draught, which caused a deep 
sleep. He was then carried to a beautiful garden, pre- 
pared for this purpose, where, when awakening, he 
found himself surrounded with every thing delightful to 
the senses or imagination ; bowers of roses, airy halls, 
murmuring brooks, the richest of viands, and the choicest 
of wines, sparkled from golden cups ; beautiful maidens, 
or houries, and blooming boys, were the inhabitants of 
this delicious spot, which ever sounded with the melody 
of birds, and the most enchanting music. The happy 
youth really believed himself in paradise, and the lan- 
guage of his attendants confirmed the delusion. When 
nature began to yield, through excess of enjoyment, the 
sleeping draught was again administered, and he was 
conveyed back to his chief. His imagination was filled 
with what he had seen, and he longed for the hour 
when death, in obeying the commands of his superiors, 
should dismiss him to paradise. 

254. End of the Crusades. The crusading spirit, 
which had begun to languish in Europe, was revived, 
for the last time, by Louis IX., of France, a monarch 
distinguished for his heroic and amiable virtues, but 
deeply afiected by the unworthy superstition of the 
times. After three years preparation, he set out for 
Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and nearly all 
the knights of France, A. D. 1248. He had greatly en- 
couraged the hearts of the Christians, in Palestine, by 
sending troops thither before his own departure. Louis 
began his enterprise by invading Fgypt, and after losing 
one half of his army by sickness, he was defeated and 
taken prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed 
himself and his followers, he proceeded to the Holy 
Land, where he remained for some time, and then re- 
turned to France, and for thirteen years reigned with 
wisdom. But the crusading frenzy again seized him; 
he embarked on another crusade against the Aloors, in 

251. By whom were the crusades revived for the last time 1 
Give an account of his expeditions. 



MODERN HISTORY. 173 

Africa, and while besieging Tunis, he, and the greater 
part of his army, perished by pestilence. 

255. Effects of the Crusades, 'i^hese barbarous ex- 
peditions agitated, convulsed, and distressed every fam- 
ily m Europe, for two hundred years. It is computed, 
ihat during the time of the crusades, more than two 
millions of Europeans were buried in the East; and 
those that survived were soon incorporated with the 
Mahometan population, in Syria, and in a few years no 
traces of the Christian conquests remained. Though 
these expeditions were attended with a great amount of 
misery, yet they were followed with some beneficial ef- 
fects. Many of the nobility were obliged to sell their 
lands, in order to procure the means to convey their 
troops to a foreign land ; and in this way the lower 
classes began to acquire property, influence, and a spirit 
of independence. Kings, likewise, raised money by 
selling to towns the right of electing their own magis- 
trates, and being governed by their own municipal laws. 
The crusaders, by traveling in the East, particularly in 
the vicinity of Constantinople, became acquainted with 
many arts and sciences, which, on their return, they in- 
troduced into their own countries. By the frequency 
of voyagers to convey troops to Palestine, the art of 
navigation rapidly improved, and consequently com- 
merce was much extended. 

Notwithstanding some benefits may have -arisen to 
the European nations on account of the crusades, yet 
it caruiot be denied, that they caused an immense degree 
of suffering. The path of the fanatical crusader was 
everywhere marked with blood : under the sacred name 
of religion, every excess and crime was committed. 

255. How many Europeans is it suppt)sed were buried in the 
East during the crusades ! Describe ilie effects otttie crusades. 
15* 



PERIOD VI. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 




Mariner^s Compass. Printing. Gunpowder 

FROM THE LAST CRUSADE TO THE DISCOVERY OF. AMERJCA. 
(333 YEARS.) 

256. Conquest of Wales. Wales is said to have been 
first inhabited by the Britons, who fled thither from the 
Saxons, in A. D. 675. Edward I., of England, who had 
been engaged in the last crusade to the Holy Land, 
with Louis, the French king, on his return formed the 
design of uniting the whole of the island of Great 
Britain into one dominion. Llewellyn, the prince of 
Wales, was surprised and slain, with 2,000 of his fol- 
lowers. His brother, Prince David, who had formerly 
received great favors from Edward, was made prisoner 
by the English, and executed as a traitor, for defending 
his 'country. The Welch nobility submitted to the 
conqueror, and the principality was annexed to the 
crown of England, A. D. 1282. It is said that Eldward 
promised to give the Welch a prince, who should be 
born in their country. His eldest son, then an infant. 



256. By whom is Wales said to have been first inhabited ■? 
By whom were they conquered '\ By whom is the title of the 
Prince of Wales borne ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 175 

was born at Caernarvon, and in consequence received 
the title of Prince of Wales, which has ever since been 
borne by the eldest sons of the British monarchs. 

257. War between the English and Scots. On the 
death* of Alexander III., who left no son, Bruce and 
Baloil were competitors for the throne of Scotland, and 
Edward was chosen umpire to decide the contest be- 
tween the two rivals. The crown was adjudged to 
Baliol, who promised to hold it as a vassal to the king 
of England. He, however, soon after renounced his 
allegiance, which was the occasion of a war, which 
lasted, with some intermission, upwards of seventy 
years. Edward invaded Scotland with a large army, 
defeated the Scots with great slaughter, and carried 
Baliol prisoner to London, and compelled him to abdi- 
cate the throne. The Scots were afterwards roused to 
arms, for the recovery of their independence, by that 
renowned hero, William Wallace, but after gaining a 
series of victories, they were defeated in the battle of 
Falkirk. The heroic Wallace was betrayed, and was 
put to death by the English in a cruel manner. The 
Scots found a second champion and deliverer in Robert 
Bruce, who expelled the English from the country, and 
was raised to the throne of his ancestors, A. D. 1306. 

258. Swiss Republics. William Tell. The estab- 
lishment of the Swiss repuC)lics was occasioned by the 
tyrannical conduct of the emperor of Germany, in 1307. 
The Swiss having petitioned him against the oppressions 
of his governors, he, in resentment, increased their 
burdens, which was the cause of a conspiracy and revolt. 
Geslcr, the governor, in order to ascertain the spirit of 
the people, ordered his hat to be placed on a pole, and 
homage paid to it, as to himself. William Tell refused, 

257. Who were the competitors for the throne of Scotland ? 
What became of Baliol 1 By whom were the Scots roused 
to arms for the recovery of their independence ? Who ex- 
pelled the English"? 

258. How were the Swiss republics established? What is 
said of Gesler and William Tell ? 



176 MODERN HISTORY. 

and when seized for disobedience, was directed to shoot 
an arrow at an apple placed on the head oi' his son, or 
else be dragged, with his child, to immediate death 
Being an excellent marksman, he cleft the apple with- 
out injuring his son. Gesler perceiving another -arrow 
under his cloak, asked for what purpose that was in- 
tended. Tell heroically replied, " To have shot you to 
the heart, if 1 had killed my son." The people soon 
flew to arms ; three of the cantons only, at first, com- 
bined to assert their freedom, and with a small army 
defeated an immense number of their enemies. The 
rest of the cantons, by degrees, joined the association. 
Their freedom cost them 60 battles. 

259. Wickliffey the English Reformer. John Wick- 
lifFe was born in 1324, and was professor of divinity, at 
Oxford, for many years. England was at this time 
completely under the dominion of the papal power ; the 
country, at this period, swarmed with monks, of the 
Mendicant order, and the clergy were generally corrupt, 
proud and indolent. This state of things aroused the 
spirit of Wickliffe, who commenced writing against the 
monks, and the tyranny of the pope and the bishops. 
He declared that the gospel was a sufficient rule of life, 
without any other, and that if a man was truly penitent 
before God, he need not confess his sins to the priest. 
He also asserted, that the Bible ought not to be kept 
exclusively in a language the common people could not 
understand. He accordingly translated the whole Bible 
into the English language, for their use. For these 
proceedings he was seized as a heretic, but owing to 
his popularity with the nobles and people, he was suf- 
fered to die in peace, A. D. 1385. The malice of his 
enemies was so great, that forty years after his death, 
his bones were burnt, and the ashes thrown into the 
river. His doctrines, however were not destroyed ; 
they prevailed, more or less, till they were firmly estab- 

259. Who was John Wickliffe, and when was he born ? 
What was the st. ^e of England at this time] What did 
Wickliffe do ? Wfiat was done with Wickliffe's bones, and 
what is he often called \ 



MODERN HISTORY. 177 

lished in Europe, by the Ivefonnation of Martin Luther, 
for which W ickhfie, in a degree, had prepared the way, 
and from this circumstance he is called " the morning 
star of the Rcfor/nation.^' 

260. Insurrection of Wat Tyler. By the propaga- 
tion of the sentiments of VVickliffe, an increase of the 
spirit of independence prevailed among the people, who 
now began to understand their rights, and of course had 
more of a disposition to maintain them. About the year 
1380, a poll-lax of three groats was imposed upon every 
person above the age of 15 years, male and female. 
This created universal discontent among the lower 
classes, on account of its injustice, as the poor were 
obliged to pay as much as the rich. A brutal tax-gath- 
erer, having demanded payment for the daughter of 
Wut Tyler, a blacksmith, whom the father had asserted 
to be below the age specified, was proceeding to im- 
proper familiarities with her, upon which the father 
dashed out his brains with his hammer. The people, 
justifying this action, tlew to arms throughout the king- 
dom, and 100,000 men were assembled near London, 
in order to redress their grievances. Tyler, however, 
was killed, while in a conference with the king, and 
his followers were compelled to submit and return to 
their homes. 

2(31. War between the houses of York and Lancaster. 
The houses of York and Lancaster were both descended 
from Edward ill., — that of York from his third son, and 
that of Lancaster from the fourth. As the reigning king 
was subject to fits of insanity, and was also a weak 
prince, Richard, duke of Gloucester, of the house of 
York, his uncle, was appointed Protector of the king- 
dom. Margaret, the queen of the deposed king, and 

200. What effect did the propagation of Wickliffe's senti- 
ments have u[)()n the people? Relate the account of the tax- 
gatherer and Wat Tyler. What followed ? 

i36l. What is said of the houses of York and Lancaster] 
What is said of Richard, duke of Gloucester, and Queen Mar- 
garet I What of the roses ] What is said of the wars between 
these parties ^ 



178 MODERN HISTORY. 

her adherents of the house of Lancaster, appealed to 
arms, in order to obtain their rights. The whole nation 
took the side of one or the other, and each party was 
distinguished by a particular badge or symbol. That 
of the house of York was a white rose, and that of Lan- 
caster a red one : hence this contention was styled the 
quarrel of the two roses. War commenced between the 
parties in 1455, and continued for thirty years, and was 
signalized by twelve sanguinary pitched battles, and 
marked with great barbarity. During the contest, more 
Ihan 100,000 men were killed, including 80 princes of 
the blood, who fell on the held, or were executed on the 
scaffold. Henry, the ordy survivor of the house of 
Lancaster, gave battle to Richard, the bloody usurper, 
on Bus worth field, where the latter was killed, his army 
defeated, and Henry was acknowledged king. Henry 
marrying into the house of York, the two houses be- 
came united, and thus terminated this bloody controversy. 
262. Wars between England and France. The con- 
tests of the English kings for the crown of France, oc- 
cupy a considerable space in the history of both coun- 
tries. Philip, king of France, died, leaving three sons, 
and one daughter, who was married to the king of Eng- 
land. All his sons died without leaving male heirs. 
Edward 111., king of England, now laid claim to the 
throne, on account of his being the son of the daughter 
of the French king. The French opposed his claim, 
and placed the brother of their king on the throne. 
Edward, in support of his claim, invaded France with 
an army of 30,000 men, gained ihe famous battle ol 
Cressy, in which cannon were for the first time used in 
war, A. D. 1346. Ten years after this event, Edward, 
the Black Prince, (son of Edward 111.,) so called from 
the color of his armor, gained the victory of Poictiers, 
and took John, king of France, prisoner, and led him in 

262. Why did Edward, king of England, lay claim to the 
throne of France 1 Who first used cannon in war, where, 
and in what year 1 What is said of the Black Prince ] 



MODERN HISTORY. 179 

triumph to London. The French, however, vigorously 
pursued the war, during the captivity of their sovereign. 

263. Joan of Arc ^ the Maid of Orleans. The English 
triumphed repeatedly in France, and by their victory at 
Agincourt, they threatened the capital itself. The Eng- 
lish undertook the siege of Oi'leans, a place of the ut- 
most importance, and pushed their designs so success- 
fully, that the affairs of Charles, the French prince, 
seemed almost desperate, when they were suddenly re- 
stored by one of the most marvelous incidents found 
recorded in history. Joan o/". 4 re, otherwise called the 
Maid of Orleans, a country girl, who was a servant at 
an inn, presented herself before the French -king, pro- 
fessing to be divinely commissioned to deliver her op- 
pressed country, and raise the siege of Orleans. Her 
mission was pronounced, by an assembly of divines, to 
be supernatural ; and, at her own request, she was ar- 
rayed in complete armor, mounted on a white horse, 
and appeared at the head of the French army, which, 
fired with enthusiasm, courageously attacked the Eng- 
lish, and drove them from the walls, and, by her heroic 
exertions in the field, effected the salvation of her coun- 
try. She, however, fell into the hands of the enemy, 
who condemned her to death for witchcraft, and, to their 
disgrace, burnt her alive at Rouen, in 1430. 

264. Founding of the Turkish Empire. While the 
empire of the Saracens, under theii califs, was drawing 
near to its close, the power of the Turks was rising into 
importance. They derive their origin from a trilDe of 
Huns, or Scythians, who dwelt in Tartary. 'J'hey were 
forced, by the tribes in the south, to abandon their coun- 
try, and pushing their course eastward, some settled 
around the Caspian sea, and others in Asia Minor. 
They became Mahometans, and, in 1037, conquered 
Persia, ravaged the neighboring countries, and made 
themselves masters of Palestine. Their establishment 

263. Who besieged Orleans'? How was the siege of Or- 
leans raised ] What became of Joan of Arc 1 

264. Where do the Turks derive their origin ? Who was 
Ottoman, and what title did he assume ? 



180 MODERN HISTORY. 

as a separate empire is dated A. D. 1299, at the time 
when Ottoman, the calif or prince of the Turks, fixed 
his seat of government at Byrsa, in Asia Minor, and as- 
sumed the title of Sultan. From this time they were 
known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. Being 
near Constantinople, they gradually encroached upon 
the Greek empire, till it fell into their possession. 

265. Of Tamerlane. Tamerlane was a prince of the 
Usbeck Tartars, and a descendant of Genghis Khan. Hav- 
ing conquered Persia, and most of the East, he turned 
his arms westward. At this period, Bajazet, one of the 
successors of Ottoman, was besieging Constantinople : 
the Greek emperor implored the assistance of Tamer- 
lane against his enemy, Tamerlane gladly accepted 
the invitation, and sent a message to Bajazet, command- 
ing him to abandon the siege, and restore the prisoners 
he had taken. This message roused his indignation : 
he left the siege and marched against this new enemy, 
but was defeated by Tamerlane, after a dreadful battle, 
which lasted three days, in which it is said that nearly 
a million men were engaged, and 300,000 slain. The 
victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this 
event. Bajazet was taken prisoner, and, it is said, was 
shut up in an iron cage, by his conqueror, and carried 
about to grace his triumphs. Tamerlane made Samar- 
cand the seat of his empire, and there received the hom- 
age of all the princes of the East. For a while this 
place was the seat of learning and the arts ; but after 
the death of Tamerlane, it relapsed into its former bar- 
barism. 

266. Taking of Constantinople hy the Turks. After 
the death of Tamerlane, the Turks resumed their pur- 
pose of destroying the Greek empire. Constantine was 
the name of the last emperor of the East, as it was also 

265. Who was Tamerlane 1 How came Tamerlane to make 
war upon Bajazet ■? What is said of Bajazet 1 Where was 
the seat of Tamerlane's empire 1 

266. Who was the last emperor of the East? What is said 
of him ■? What of the conquest of the city ] How long did 
the eastern Roman empire exist 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 



181 



of the first. The Turks had so encroached upon his 
dominions, that they became very much reduced. The 
indolent inhabitants of Constantinople made but a feeble 
preparation for defense. Constantine, however, with a 
spirit worthy of the former days of the empire, endeav- 



HP 




1 


^s 


fe^^^^^^ 



Taking of Constantinople by the Turks. 

ored to animate the fainting hearts of his degenerate 
subjects, to defend the last remains of their possessions. 
He applied to the western monarchs, and solicited the 
aid of his Christian brethren ; but the powers of Europe 
looked on with indifference. The city was assailed by 
sea and by land, and the walls were battered down with 
cannon. The emperor was slain, and the city taken. 
The imperial buildings were preserved, and the churches 
converted into mosques, or Turkish places of worship. 
The city was given up to spoil for three days, in which 
the soldiers were permitted to commit every enormity. 
The capture of Constantinople took place A. D. 1453, 
and by this event the eastern Roman empire was extin- 
guished, having existed upwards of eleven hundred years. 
267. Invention of the Mariner s Compass. The in- 
vention, during this period, of the mariner's compass, 
that of gunpowder, and especially the art of printing, 
gave a new direction to the affairs of men, and will 

o 

16 



182 MODERN HISTORY. 

continue to affect the destinies of future ages. The 
mariner's compass is said to have been invented about 
the year 1300, by Gioia, a mathematician, at Naples. 
It did not, however, come into general use till the year 
1400. The Chinese lay claim to the honor of this, as 
well as several other discoveries and inventions ; but 
not much reliance can be placed on their statements. 
Before this discovery, mariners scarcely ever ventured 
out of sight of land ; but since, man has ventured to 
quit his timid course along the shore, and steer boldly 
into the deep. It has opened to him the dominion ot 
the sea, and presented a new world to his view, des- 
tined to become the abode of civilization and Chris- 
tianity. 

268. Gunpowder. Firearms. The invention of gun- 
powder has done much towards softening- the ferocity 
and diminishing the chances of war. War is now more 
a matter of calculation than formerly. In ancient times, 
a man whose brute force was superior to those around 
him, had the advantage over those of a vi^eaker frame ; 
but by this invention a comparatively weak, man is 
placed upon an equal footing. Roger Bacon, a learned 
English friar, or monk, who died at Oxford, 1292, un- 
derstood the secret of the composition of gunpowder, 
and it is said that he was the inventor. Its application 
to warlike purposes is said to have been first suggested 
by Swartz, a mordv of Cologne, about the year 1330. 
Sixteen years afterwards, Edward III., of England, at 
the battle of Cressy, used four pieces of artillery. The 
invention of portable firearms seems to have originated 
in Germany. They were at first made so long and 
heavy, that they were placed on props 'when fired. The 
first gunlock was invented in 1517, and the ieimjireloch 
was given to the invention, 

267. What time was the mariner's compass invented! 
What is said of the Chinese ] 

208. What effect has the invention of gunpowder had upon 
war 1 Who is said to have been the inventor \ What is said 
respecting portable firearms] 



MODERN HISTORY. 183 

209. A?t ofPriutiiig. The art of printing vvith mova- 
ble types is sai^l to have been discovered by John Gut- 
ti'tibarg and others, at Mentz, in Germany, A. 1). 1436. 
Gutteaburg, having expended nearly all his property in 
the invention o!" this art, was about to abandon it, when 
JjJm Faust, hkevvise a citizen of Mentz, came to his 
assistance, and they brought the art to a considerable 
degree of perfection. The servant of Faust discovered 
the art of casting singly each type or character. The 
oath of secresy being taken by ail their workmen, the 
art was concealed till 1462, when Mentz was taken and 
sacAcd : the workmen engaged in printing were dispersed 
and by this means the art was spread over Europe. 
From remote antiquity, a kind of block-printing has 
been practiced among the Chinese ; but it bears but lit- 
tle resemblance to that important art discovered in mod- 
ern Europe, I'rom which benefits of such magnitude have 
arisen to mankind. 

270. Moorish kingdom of Grenada. The conquest of 
Spain by the Saracens, or Moors, is noticed in sections 
191 and 192. The Christian princes in Spain had 
gralually recovered the various kingdoms or provinces in 
that country, till the kingdom of Grenada alone remained 
under the government of the Moors. This kingdom 
was situated in the southern part of Span, bordering on 
the Me;literranean, and was surrounded by a lofty range 
of mountains on the land side, which inclosed a deep, 
rich, and fertile valley. The city of Grenada lay in 
the centre of the kingdom, and was, perhaps, the most 
splendid city of the age, and the remains of its ancient 
grandeur still astonish the beholder. So beautiful was 
this region, so pure the air, and so serene the sky, that 
the Moors imagined the paradise of their prophet to be 
situated in that part of heaven which overhung the 
kingdom of Grenada. This kingdom, with the territo- 

209. By whom was the art of printing discDvered, and at 
what time ] What is said of Guttenburg, and of .John Faust ] 
How was the knowledge of the ait spread ov(^- Europe ! 

270. Where was the kingdom of Grenada ! VV'iial is said 
of it! 



184 MODERN HISTORY. 

ries UTider its protection, previous to its conquest, con- 
tained 14 cities and 97 I'ortitied towns, besides numer- 
ous places defended by formidable castles. The capi- 
tal was surrounded by a wall, three leagues in circuit, 
and fortified with a thousand and thirty towers. 

271. Conquest of Grenada. The Christian princes 
of Spain had left the Moors in quiet possession of Gre- 
nada, on condition of their paying an annual tribute of 
2,000 pistoles of gold, and 1,600 Christian captives. 
In the year 1478, when the Spanish courtier arrived to 
demand the customary tribute, Hassan, the Moorish 
monarch, replied : " Tell your sovereign, that the kings 
who used to pay tribute are dead. Our mint at present 
coins nothing but cimetars and heads of lances." Of 
course, war followed this declaration. For a period of 
ten years, the Moors bravely defended their country : 
their towns were taken, one after another, although they 
disputed every advance of their enemies with the ut- 
most resolution. After a series of almost uninterrupted 
disasters to the Moorish arms, their capital was sur- 
rounded by the Christian forces under Ferdinand and 
Isabella. The resources of the city now being cut off, 
famine stared the inhabitants in the f ice. The Moor- 
ish prince, Boahil, despairing of all relief, was forced to 
surrender Grenada to the Spaniards. This event, 
which took place in January, 1492, put an end to the 
dominion of the Moors in Spain, after it had existed 
nearly eight hundred years. 

272. Portuguese Discoveries. The discovery of the 
mariner's compass awakened a spirit for maritime dis- 
covery, and several nations turned their attention to 
navigation and commercial enterprise. Previous to this 
period, the Venetians took the lead in commercial pur- 

271. On what condition did the Moors have quiet possession 
of Grenada] What answer did Hassan give to the Spanish 
courtier ! Who conquered Grenada 1 How long had the do- 
minion of the Moors continued in Spain? 

272. Who t4>()k the lead in commerce, before the discovery 
of the mariner's compass ] Where did they trade, and by 
what route "? What is said of the Portuguese ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 185 

suits. For a long time they had the whole trade of In- 
dia, which they carried on by way of Egypt and the 
Red Sea, or through the inland routes of Asia : and the 
immense wealth they acquired by it, excited the envy 
and enterprise of other nations of Europe. Many be- 
gan anxiously to inquire, whether another route could not 
be found to India by water, which would be less tedi- 
ous and expensive. The Portuguese devoted the most 
attention to this subject, and to them is justly due the 
honor of leading the way in those enterprises, which 
have been attended with such important results to man- 
kind. Under the patronage of Prince lienry, son of 
their king, the Portuguese navigators discovered the 
Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd islands, and explored 
the shores of Africa, to the coast of Guinea. The fame 
of ihese discoveries attracted the learned, the curious, 
and enterprising, from various nations, to Lisbon. 

273. Of Columbus. Christopher Columbus was 
born in the city of Genoa, about 1440. His father was 
a wool-comber, and gave him as good an education as 
his limited means would allow. He -early showed a 
great fondness for navigation, and, at the age of fourteen, 
began to navigate the Mediterranean, and about the 
year 1470, he repaired to Lisbon. During his residence 
in Portugal, he sailed in several expeditions to the Afri- 
can islands and* the coast of Guinea. As it was the 
grund object of the Portuguese to find a passage to the 
Indies by water, Columbus was persuaded, from his 
knowledge of the spherical shape of the earth, that, in- 
stead of sailing round by the southern extremity of Af- 
rica, he could find an easier route by sailing westward 
across the Atlantic Ocean. He supposed that the east- 
ern coast of India, and the western shores of Europe 
and Africa, were separated by an ocean of moderate 
extent. Several facts tended to confirm him in this be- 
lief. Pieces of carved wood, reeds of an enormous 

273. Where was Columbus born 1 What were Columbus' 
opinions respecting a passage to India? What facts con- 
firmed him in this belief? 
16* 



186 MODERN HISTORY. 

size, and above all, a canoe with the bodies of two men 
in it, differing in their appearance from any known race 
of people, had been driven by the westerly winds upon 
the Azores, or Western Islands. 

274. Columbus^ application for Assistance. Colum- 
bus having established his theory, he now began to think 
of the means necessary in order to make a voyage of 
discovery. Believing it too important an enterprise to 
be undertaken by a private individual, he deemed it ne- 
cessary to apply to some sovereign power. In 1484, he 
applied to John II., of Portugal, but instead of receiving 
assistance, experienced contempt and injury. Colum- 
bus next laid his plans before the government of Genoa, 
but that republic was embarrassed with wars, and was 
in a decline ; they were also unable to form correct 
opinions respecting the truth of his theory, and consider- 
ed his proposed voyage as useless and visionary. He 
next applied to Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen 
of Spain. They listened to his views with attention, 
and gave him some faint hopes of assistance. He was 
however kept several years in suspense, and was obliged 
to struggle with many difficulties, thrown in his way 
by ignorant and malicious persons. At length, by the 
influence of Queen Isabella, three small ships, and 120 
men, were fitted out and placed under his command. 

275. First Voyage and Discovery of Columbus On 
the third of August, 1 492, Columbus set sail irom the 
port of Palos, in Spain, and steered for the Canary Isl- 
ands, where he refitted his vessels and took in fresh pro- 
visions. On the 6th of September, he steered directly 
west, into the unknown ocean before him. Three days 
after losing sight of land, many of the seamen on board 
wept bitterly, from the apprehension that they should 
never see it again. After sailing some days, the needle 
of the compass varied from its direct course, towards the 

274. Who did Columbus apply to for assistance to make a 
voyage of discovery^ How did he succeed] 

275. Where did Columbus sail from? Give an accouni^ ot 
the voyage. What land vv^as first discovered, and at what 
time] Give an account of the landing. 



MODERN HISTORY 



187 



tiorth. At this the people, and even Cohimbus, became 
alarmed. To add to his perplexity, his seamen became 
mutinous, and even threatened to* throw him overboard 
if he would not return. Columbus, after trying various 
ways to pacify them, promised that if land did not ap- 
pear in three days, he would return. On tiie third day, 




Landtag of Columbus. 

land, to their great joy, was discovered ; it proved to be 
an island, which was afterwards named St. Salvador, 
now called Cat Island, .one of the Bahamas. On the 
12th of October, 1492, Columbus went first on sliore, 
and was followed by his men. They all knelt, kissed 
the ground with tears of joy, and returned thanks to 
God for their successful voyage. Columbus, now 
drawing his sword, planted the royal standard, and took 
formal possession of the country, in the name of the 
king and queen of Spain. 



PERIOD VII. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR THE REF'JRMATION Br LUIMER 



The Bible presented to the common people. 

FJIOM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMES- 
TOWN. 

(U5 YEARS.) 

276. Columbus' Return from his first Voyage. After 
his first landing in the new world, Columbus proceeded 
southward, and discovered Cuba and Hispaniola, (now 
Hayti,) on which he landed, and left a number of his 
men to form a colony. He also discovered a number 
of other islands in the vicinity, which he supposed 
to be near India. In consequence of this belief, he 
called the natives Indians, and this name was afterwards 
given to the natives of the western continent, and is still 
retained. As Columbus reached these islands by a 
western passage, he named them West Indies. Having 
obtained a quantity of jjold, and other productions of the 
new world, with a number of the natives, ho set sail for 
Spain. C)n his voyage a violent storm arose, which 
threatened their destruction. Columbus, in order to give 



276. What islands did Columhns discover? Why did lie 
call his discoveries the West Indies I Give an account of his 
return to Spain. What did he do when in a storm ^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 189 

the world some chance to know his discoveries, wrote 
a short account of his voyage, on two skins of parch- 
ment which he wrapped in an oiled cloth covered with 
wax, and having inclosed them in two separate casks, 
he threw them into the sea, in hopes that they would be 
discovered by some navigator, or be cast ashore. But 
the storm abated, and Columbus arrived in Spain, where 
he was received with wonder and acclamation by the 
multitude, and with great respect and admiration at 
court. 

277. Fate of Cohunbus. Columbus, after his first 
voyage, made three others to the new world, and on the 
1st of August, 1498, he discovered the continent, near 
the mouth of the Oronoko, in South America. His suc- 
cesses and honors excited a spirit of envy and intrigue 
against him, in the court of Spain. In consequence of 
false accusations, he was deprived of his command as 
governor of Hispaniola, apd sent home in chains. 
Though declared innocent, and apparently restored to the 
favor of the court, he never received the reward due to 
his merits. His shameful and unjust treatment preyed 
upon his spirits, and through the whole of his after-life 
he carried his chains with him, as a memorial of the in- 
gratitude which he had experienced. He hung them up 
in hi« chamber, an 1 gave orders that they should be 
buried with him. Worn down with anxieties, fatigues, 
and disappointment, Columbus died at Valadolid, in 1 506. 
His funeral, by order of Philip, who had recently as- 
cetided the throne, was extremely magnificent, and the 
following inscription was engraved on his tomb : " To 
Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world." 

278. Of Vespuciiis^ Cahot, and other Discoverers. The 
discoveries of Cohunbus produced a great excitement in 
Spain and Portugal, and several persons fitted out ships 
at their own expense, and crossed the ocean in hope of 

277. When did Columbus discover the continent, and where 1 
Wfiy w:is he sent home in chains ? What effect did the treat- 
ment have upon him ? 

278. What effect did the discoveries of Columbus have ? 
Who was Americus Vespuciusi Why was America named 



190 MODERN HISTORY. 

obtaining wealth and honors. Atnons^ the earliest ot 
these adventures was Ojeda, an enterprising orTicer, who 
accompanied Columbus in his first expedition. He 
sailed in 1 499, and made some discoveries at the mouth 
of the Oronoko. He was accompanied by one Americas 
Vespucius, a native of Florence. This person, on his 
return, published an account of the voyage, in which he 
made it appear that he was the first discoverer of the 
continent of the new world. His publication was cir- 
culated rapidly, and was ;ead with admiration ; and by 
this means, in honor of the supposed discoverer, the 
name Ainerica was given to the new continent. 

John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but an inhabitant of 
England, received a commission from the English king, 
and sailed in 1497, on a voyage of discovery. He was 
accompanied by his son, Sebastian Cabot, and one or 
both of ihem discovered the continent of North America. 
The first land discovered by them, is supposed to have 
been Nervfoundland. They proceeded farther to the 
north, in search of a passage to India, but not succeed- 
ing, they turned about, and sailed as far south as Florida. 
They erected crosses along on the coast, and took a for- 
mal possession of the country, in behalf of the crown of 
England. This was the foundation of the English claim 
to North America, though no settlements were made till 
many years afterwards. 

In 1497, Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, first sailed 
round, or doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and made a 
voyage to India. In 1520, Magellan, a Portuguese, in 
the service of Spain, passed through the straits which 
bear his name, and entered into a vast ocean, which he 
named the Pacific, on account of the stillness of its 
waters. He lost his life at one of the Philippine islands, 
but his officers proceeded on the voyage, and effected 
the^V^^ circumnavigation of the globe. 

after him ] Who was John Cabot, and in wnose service was 
he employed 1 What discoveries did he and his son, Sebas- 
tian, make ? What is said of Vasco de Gama 1 What of Ma- 
gellan ? Who effected the first circumnavigation of the globe ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 191 

279. Invasion of Mexico. After the discovery of 
Coluinbus, the Spaniards flocked in considerable num- 
bers to the new world and commenced settlements at 
Jamaica^ Porto Rico, Darien, and Cuba. These new 
countries were supposed to contain vast quantities of 
gold and silver ; hence the eagerness of the Spaniards 
to explore and conquer these countries, in order to ob- 
tain possession of the precious metals. Under the pre- 
tence of religion and policy, they were guilty of the 
most shocking inhumanity to the natives. The most 
forcible means were employed to convert them to Chris- 
tianity : they were hunted down like wild beasts, and 
were sometimes burnt alive. Hispaniola, at the time of 
its discovery, contained three millions of inhabitants, 
and Cuba upwards of 600,000 ; but the Spaniards 
caused such destruction of human life, that in a very 
few years scarcely any of the natives remained. In 
1519, the governor of Cuba fitted out an armament of 
eleven small vessels and 617 men, under the command 
of Fernando Cortez, for the invasion of Mexico. At 
this period, firearms were not in general use : only 
thirteen of his men had muskets, the rest being armed 
vv^ith cross-bows, swords, and spears. Cortez had, 
however, ten small field pieces and sixteen horses — 
the first of these animals ever seen in that country. 

280. Advance of Cortez to the city of Mexico. Land- 
ina at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave 
opposition, into the very heart of the country ; he could, 
however, have made but little impression on the empire 
of Mexico, which contained many millions of people, 
had he not been joined by the people of some of the 
disrifiected provinces, who wished to throw off the Mexi- 
can yoke. On the approach of the Spaniards to the 

279. What made the Spaniards eager to explore and con- 
quer the new countries 1 What is said of their treatment of 
the natives ] What is said of Fernando Cortez, and how were 
his men armed"? 

280. By what means v/as Cortez enabled to advance into 
Mexico! How did Montezuma receive him] What did 
Cortez do to Montezuma 1 



192 



MODERN HISTORY. 



capital, the terror of their name prepared the way for 
an easy conquest. Mojitezuma, the Mexican monarch, 
received the Spaniards with great hospitality, and he 
regarded them with the reverence due to superior be- 
ings. Cortez was very desirous of having Montezuma 
under his power : a pretext for this purpose soon took 
place. Some difficulty between his soldiers and the 
natives having taken place, Cortez, with fifty of his 
men, marched to the palace of Montezuma, where, seiz- 
ing him, he put him in irons, and carried him oft 
prisoner to his camp. 




LiiiiJiiiiiiilwIl 



Fall of Montezuma. 

281. Death of Montezuma. The seizure of the em* 
peror by the Spaniards, aroused the Mexicans to arms 
Such was the fury of their attacks, that the situation of 
Cortez became desperate : he entrusted Montezuma, 
who was still a prisoner in his camp, to speak to his 
subjects, in order to make them desist from their attacks. 
Montezuma consented, and accordingly, addressed the 
people from a terrace, and reque">ted them to cease from 

281. What effect did the seizure of Montezuma have upon 
his subjects \ V hat did Cortez entreat of Montezunna 1 Re- 
late the iQ&DD!S f his death, and the flight of the Spaniards 



MODERN HISTORY. 193 

hostilities, in order that the Spaniards might leare the 
city. While he was speaking, his people ceased their 
attacks ; but on the conclusion of his speech, a shower 
of stones and arrows fell about the place where he 
stood, some of which struck him, and caused his death. 
On the death of their monarch, the fury of the Mexi- 
cans increased. The Spaniards in a dark rainy night 
attempted to affect their retreat from the city ; they were 
discovered by the Mexicans, who attacked them with 
such numbers, that the greater part of the Spaniards 
were killed before they could effect their escape from 
the city. Many of the soldiers so loaded themselves 
with gold, that in their flight they were easily overtaken 
ind killed by the enemy. 

282. Conquest of Mexico. After this defeat, Cortez 
was reinforced by European soldiers, who flocked to 
him as volunteers, in order to receive a share of the 
spoils of Mexico : besides these, the Tlascalans, his 
allies, offered to assist him with 50,000 of their best 
troops, if he would again march against the Mexicans. 
Cortez being thus encouraged, laid siege to the city of 
Mexico, which was now governed by Guatimozin, a 
brave prince, who showed great skill, courage, and 
heroism, in defending his country. For more than 
three months the Spaniards and their allies were al- 
most daily fighting the Mexicans, in order to obtain 
possession of the city. All their attempts were in vain, 
and Cortez must have raised the siege, had not an In- 
dian, fatally for his country, advised him to blockade 
the city on the water. The Spaniards built several 
vessels, with which they surrounded the city, which 
was built on a number of small islands in a salt lake. 
By this means Mexico was cut off from all supplies, and 
a most dreadful famine followed. Guatimozin fled from 
the city, but was taken prisoner. Refusing to discover 
his treasures, Cortez stretched him naked on burning 

283. By whom was Cortez assisted to make another attack 
upon the Spaniards 1 By what means did Cortez finally con 
quer Mexico 1 

17 



194 MODERN HISTORY. 

coals. Afterwards, on the discovery of a conspiracy 
against the Spaniards, he was hung on a gibbet, with 
the princes of his blood, and Cortez thus became master 
of the empire. 

283. Invasion of Peru. In 1518, the Spaniards formed 
a settlement at Panama, on the west side of the isthmus 
of Darien. From this place a number of attempts were 
made to explore the regions of South iVmerica. In 
1625, Pizarro and a number of other adventurers sailed 
as far as Peru, and discovered that rich and flourishing 
country. Two years afterwards, Pizarro having re- 
ceived a commission from the king of Spain, landed in 
Peru : he was afterwards joined by Ahnagro, with a 
small reinforcement. The whole force with which 
these adventurers attempted to conquer one of the finest 
kingdoms in America, consisted of but 250 foot, 60 
horse, and 12 small pieces of cannon. As was the 
case with Mexico, the empire was weakened by inter- 
nal divisions, and by this means the Peruvians fell an 
easy prey to the Spaniards. Pizarro having marched 
to the residence of the Inca, or king, Atahualpa invited 
him to a friendly mterview, and attempted lo persuade 
him to adopt the Christian religion. This proposal 
being misunderstood, or received with hesitation, Pizarro 
seized the monarch as his prisoner, while his troops 
massacred 4,000 of his people on the spot. 

284. Conquest of Peru. Finding the ruling passion 
of the Spaniards was the love of gold, Atahualpa of- 
fered, if they would release him, to fill the room in 
which he was confined, which was twenty-two feet by 
sixteen, with vessels of gold and silver as high as he 
could reach. This offer was accepted, and gold was 
collected from all parts of the empire, and was divided 
among the conquerors. But the perfidious Pizarro still 



283. Who discovered and invaded Peru 1 How large a 
force did he have ? What did Pizarro do to the Inca 1 

284. I4ow much silver and gold did Atahualpa offer for his 
release 1 What di' Pizarro do ? What became of Pizarro 
and Alinagror What effect did the fiudnig of so much gold 
and silver have 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 195 

held the Inca a prisoner, anJ being suspected of con- 
cealing a part of his treasures, was brought to trial as a 
criminal, and on a charge of being an usurper and an 
idolater, was strangled at a stake. The Peruvian 
government being desirpyed, all parts of the empire 
were subdued, and became a province of Spain. The 
Spanish chiefs having divided the country among them- 
selves, soon began to quarrel with each other, and both 
Pizarro and Almagro were put to death in the civil 
wars which followed. The great quantifies of gold and 
silver found in Spanish America, greatly increased the 
quantity of specie, and much reduced the value of money 
all over the civilized world. 

285. Civilization of the Mexicans and Peruvians. At 
the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Peruvians 
and Mexicans had made advances in civilization to a 
much greater extent than any of the other Indian tribes 
or nations of America. They understood the arts of 
architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the pre- 
cious metals : they cultivated their lands, and had a 
regular system of government, and a code of civil and 
religious laws. The Peruvians had the superiority in 
architecture, and possessed some splendid palaces and 
temples. They had no knowledge of letters ; the 
Mexicans, however, had a system of recording events, 
by means of paintings, or figures, by which they repre- 
sented facts with great certainty. These historical 
paintings were preserved with the greatest care by the 
Mexicans, and such of them as escaped destruction, at 
the time of the conquest of the Spaniards, are the 
source from which the history of the country is derived. 
The Spaniards at first, supposing them to be connected 
with their idolatrous worship, destroyed all they could 
find. 

286. Religion. The Mexicans believed in a Supreme 
Being, although their ideas concerning him were very 
imperfect. They believed also like the Greeks and 

285. What is said of the civilization of the Mexicans and 
Peruvians 1 What of the paintings of the Mexicans ^ 



J96 MODERN HISTORY. 

Romans, in numerous inferior deities, who presided ovet 
the air, fire, earth, water, &c., and they also believed in 
evil spirits. They believed in the doctrine of transmi- 
gration, and that the souls of mankind after death pass 
into other animals, as cattle, birds, fishes, &c. They 
had images of their inferior deities made of wood, stone, 
and some of gold, and other metals : these they wor- 
shiped with prayers, fasting, and many severe rites 
and ceremonies. To these idols they often sacrificed 
slaves and prisoners of war, with many circumstances 
of shocking barbarity. The Peruvians worshiped the 
sun, as the Supreme deity, and their religious rites were 
much less bloody than those of the Mexicans. 

287. Religious State of Christendom. The religious 
state of the Christian nations of Europe, at the com- 
mencement of the sixteenth century, is represented bv 
almost all historians, as being exceedingly deplorable 
The nations of Christendom were all under subjection 
to the papal power. The Koman pontiffs not only gave 
law in all religious matters, but even in civil affairs ; 
and kings and kingdoms were subjected by their will. 
The clergy possessed immense wealth, and in general, 
awfully neglected their spiritual duties, and employed 
their treasures in gratifying their corrupt desires and 
passions. The great body of the people were kept in 
ignorance, and were taught the efficacy of relics and 
utility of indulgences; but of the genuine precepts and 
spirit of true Christianity, they knew but little. At this 
period, the art of printing was discovered, and the hu- 
raar ind began to be awakened from the long sleep of 
ages, by means of this important discovery. 

288. Reformation hy Luther. The Reformation of 
religion in Germany, by Martin Luther and others, was 
the commencement of an important era in the religious 

286. What was the religious belief of the Mexicans'? What 
is said of their worship and sacrifices ] What of the worship 
of the Peruvians I 

287. Whcit is said of the religious state of Europe at the 
commencement of the 16th century 1 What of the Ronian 
pontiffs, the clergy, and common people "^ 



MODERN HISTORY. 197 

and civil history of the world. This event is dated 
A. D. 1517, when Tctzel, an agent of F^ope Leo X., 
beofan to publish indulgences, and brought them into 
Germany and ottered them for sale. Leo X. was a 
man of pleasure and ambition, who exhausted the papal 
treasury, and took this method to raise money ; but 
the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all 
sins, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, 
together with the gross immorality of Tetzel and his 
associates, gave offense to many religious persons. Lu- 
ther at this time was a professor of divinity at Witten- 
burg, and when Tetzel came into the vicinity, he boldly 
and eloquently protested against the iniquity of these 
indulgences and other mwi. ,, doctrines, and the vices 
of the monks. He also published his sentiments, which 
spread over Germany with great rapidity, and were read 
with the greatest eagerness. Leo and his agents, 
alarmed by the progress of Luther's sentiments among 
all classes of people, excommunicated him as a heretic, 
and would have probably put him to death, had he not 
been befriended by some of the princes of Germany, 
who were friendly to the new doctrines he set forth. 
In 1520, the pope issued a bull, or proclamation, threat- 
ening him with destruction as an excommunicated here- 
tic, unless he should within sixty days publicly recant 
his errors, and burn his own books. Amid a vast as- 
semblage of people at Wittenburg, Luther threw the 
papal bull, with the volumes of the canon law, into the 
fl inies, renounced the authority of the pope, exhorted 
the princes of Europe to shake off' the oppressive yoke 
which they had so long borne, and offered thanks to 
Almighty God that he was selected as the advocate of 
true religion, and a friend to the liberties of mankind. 

289. Progress of the Reformation. The new opin- 
ions set forth by fiUther, found friends in almost every 

iiSS. When did the Reformation by Luther commence ? 
U'hni is said of Leo X. and Tetzel ? Who whs Luther, and 
\\li:it (lid he do 1 W'hat did Leo do respecting 1 uther \ What 
did Luther do with the pope's bull I 

17* 



198 MODERN HISTORY. 

coiinlry in Europe. In Switzerland, Z uinglms att3.cked 
indulgences with the courage not inferior to T^uther 
himself; and the Reformation was estalilished in Ge- 
neva, and in a number of the Swiss cantons, by the cele- 
brated Calvin. It also found friends in France, the 
Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, and Bohemia Henry 
VIH., of England, having quarreled with the pope, on 
account of his divorce, renounce 1 the papal authority, 
and by the prudent management of Cranmer, the re 
formed doctrines were effectually established in thai 
kingdom. Scotland was emancipated from the papal 
power, by the unwearied and intrepid labors of John 
Knox. Luther translated the Bible into the German 
language, in order that the common people might read 
it ; he also wrote many works, labored with great zeal 
in propagating the doctrines of the Reformation, and 
before he died had the iuimijUH' of seeing vast numbers 
of people throughout Europe adopting his sentiments. 

290. Overthrow of the Papal power in Englana. 
Henry VI 11., king of England, was a man of distin- 
guished abilities, though notorious for his beastly vices. 
At the beginning of the Reformatioii, he was opposed 
to it, and even wrote a book against Luther, which so 
pleased the pope, that he bestowed on him the title of 
Defender of the Faith. The wife of Henry, at this 
time, was Catharine of Arragon, widow of his brother. 
After having lived with her for about 18 years, he pro- 
fessed to have conscientious scruples about his mar- 
riage, on account of her having been the wife of his 
brother ; and wishing to marry the beautiful and accom- 
plished Anne Bolci/n, he applied to the pope for a di- 

289. What is said of Zuingrlins and Calvin ? Of Henry 
Vni. of England. Crnnmer, and John Knox? Why did Lu- 
ther translate the Bible 1 

290. What is said of Henry VIIL 1 What title did he have 
bestowed upon him^ Why did he wish for a divorce, and 
why did the pope delav to g^ive a decision ? Whv did Hcnty 
abolish the papal authoritv of England 1 What did he do with 
the monasteries'! What is said respecting the introduction of 
Protestantism into England ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 199 

voYce. Catharine was the aunt of the emperor, Charles 
v., of Germany. The pope fomid that if he granted 
the divorce, he should affront the emperor, and if he did 
not, he should offend Henry : he accordingly delayed 
giving a decision. Henry, however, would not be de- 
feated in the accomplishment of his wishes. The opin- 
ion of various universities having been obtained in favor 
of the divorce, Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, an- 
nulled his marriage with Catharine, and Anne was soon 
after crowned queen. 

Pope Clement, wishing to keep well with the empe- 
ror, condemned the proceedings of Cranmer. Henry im- 
mediately abolished the papal authority in England, and 
proclaimed himself Head of the English church, in 1534. 
He proceeded to abolish the monasteries, which at 
this time were very numerous, and possessed immense 
wealth. The immoralities of the monks were now fully 
exposed, and the forgery of relics, false miracles, &c., 
were held up to the popular scorn and indignation. 
Henry, though a reformer, was far from being a Protest- 
ant ; and he condemned to death both Catholics and 
Protestants, who ventured to maintain opinions contrary 
to his own. Though a most unworthy instrument, Hen- 
ry, by his opposition to the pope, was the means of in- 
troducing the Protestant religion into England, which 
may be considered as (in- mn' source of the prosperity 
and superiority of that kingdom over most of the king- 
doms of Europe. 

291. Reformation in Scotland. About the year 1526, 
the doctrines of the German reformers were introduced 
into Scotland, by Patrick Hamilton, a youth of noble de- 
scent. For his efforts against the popish religion, he 
was put to death. Many excellent men in Scotland suf- 
fered death in the same cause. This, however, only 
served to increase the number of the reformed. The 
person who most distinguished himself, to extend the 

291. By whom were the doctrines of the Reformers intro- 
duced into Scotland ] Who is called the apostlo of Scotland! 
What IS said of him ] 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

Reformation in Scotland was John Knox, who, for his 
uncommon zeal and piety, is called " the apostle of Scot- 
land." Having embraced the tenets of the Protestants, 
he spread them abroad at the hazard of his life. He was 
ardent, bold, and persevering, and commanded the re- 
spect even of his enemies. He died in 1572, after hav- 
ing lived to see the Reformation fully established. The 
regent of Scotland pronounced his eulogium, as his body 
was laid in the grave : There lies he who never feared the 
face of man. Knox adopted the Presbyterian form ot 
church government, which is now the form established 
by law in Scotland. 

292. Of the Jesuits. The Jesuits, or the Society of 
Jesus, was instituted by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish 
knight, about the year 1535. One of the vows which 
the Jesuits took upon themselves was, that they would 
go wherever the pope should command them, without 
any aid from him for their support. At this period, the 
papal power had received such a shock, by the progress 
of the Reformation, that the acquisition of such a body 
of men as the Jesuits, was to the pope of much impor- 
tance. Pope Paul, therefore, confirmed the order, and 
granted them many privileges. The Jesuits are peculiar 
in their operations. Instead of retiring from the world, 
like most other religious orders, they considered them- 
selves as formed for action. They attended to all the 
transactions of the world, on account of the influence 
they might have upon religion. They were directed to 
study the dispositions of persons of rank, gain their 
friendship, and become their spiritual guides and con- 
fessors. To have the management of the education of 
youth, they considered one of the most important parts 
of their system. 

293. Progress of the Jesuits. Before the clo&e of the 
sixteenth century, the Jesuits had obtained the chief di- 
rection of the education of youth in every Catholic 

292. By whom was the order of Jesuits instituted ? What 
was one of their vows ] State the peculiar operations of the 
Jesuits. 



MODERN HISTORY. 201 

country in Europe. They had become the confessors 
of all its moiiarchs, — a function of great importance, 
'lliey had, at different periods, the direction of the most 
considerable courts in Europe, and took part in every 
intrigue and revolution. In order to support themselves 
and their minions, they engaged in extensive and profita- 
ble commerce, both in the East and West Indies, and 
h'ld their warehouses in difierent parts of Europe. Not 
sutisfied with trade alone, they acquired possession of 
large and fertile provinces. In Paraguay^ in South 
America, the Jesuits civilized the natives, and trained 
them to arts and manufactures. Such was their influ- 
ence, that a few of their number presided over some 
hundred thousand Indians. But at length their power 
became so formidable, that they were expelled by most 
of the nations of Europe, and the order was suppressed 
by Pope Clement in J773. In 1814, however, the or- 
der of the Jesuits was re-established by the papal au- 
thority. 

294. Massacre of St. Bartholomew'' s. In 1572, during 
the reign of Charles IX. of France, 70,000 Protestants 
were murdered in that kingdom. At this period, the 
Protestant religion had spread extensively in France, and 
was professed by some men of great influence at the 
court. Previous to the massacre, a civil war had raged 
between the Catholig|^nd Protestants, which was ended 
by granting toleratioiPro the Protestants. In order to put 
down the reformed religion, Charles and his court had 
recourse to stratagem and treachery. The Protestants 
were treated with the greatest marks of favor, and their 
principal leaders were allured to the court. Every thing 
being arranged, on St. Bartholomew's day, a horrid mas- 
sacre took place in Paris and throughout France. 

293. State the progress of the Jesuits before the close of 
the 16th century. What did they in Paraguay 1 When were 
they suppressed, and when restored 1 

294. How many Protestants were murdered in France ? 
What is said of the Catholics and Protestants previous to this 
time 1 During the massacre, what did Charles, the French 
king, do? 



202 MODERN HISTORY. 

Charles, the savage monarch, from the windows of his 
palace, encouraged the furious populace to murder his 
Protestant subjects, by crying out " Kill ! kill !" Ot 
this atrocious massacre, a French historian observes : 
" No example of equal barbarity is to be found in all an 
tiquity, or in the annals of the world." 

295. Reign of Queen Mary. Mary was the daughter 
o{ Catharine o{ Arr agon, one of the wives of Henry VI [I., 
king of England. She was educated a Catholic, and en- 
deavored to establish that religion again in England. 
She is often called the bloody Queen Mary, on account 
of the bloody persecution in England during her reign. 
In this persecution, upwards of 270 persons were burnt, 
among whom were five bishops and twenty-one clergy- 
men. The men who had been the most forward in es- 
tablishing the Protestant religion were singled out for 
punishment ; and among the most eminent martyrs who 
were burnt at Smithfield, were Cranmer, Latimer, Rid- 
ley, Hooper, and Rogers. The excellent character of 
the sufferers, and the firmness which they exhibited, 
produced a strong feeling in their favor. Instead of 
overthrowing the Protestant religion, by burning its ad- 
vocates, it caused it to be more (irmly established. 

296. Queen EUzabetJis Reign. After the death of 
Mary, in 1558, Elizabeth, another daughter of Henry 
VIII., ascended the throne of England. During hei 
reign, which continued 44 years, tranquillity was main- 
tained in her dominions, the Protestant religion was re- 
stored, and the Church of England was established in its 
present form. The nation attained a higher state of 
prosperity than it had ever known before, and, from be- 
ing a secondary kingdom, rose to a level with the first 
states in Europe. The character of Elizabeth, however, 
has received a stain, from her treatment of her cousin, 
Mary, Queen of Scots. This beautiful, accomplished, 

295. Who is called the bloody Queen Mary, and why so 
called 1 How many persons were burnt during her reign, and 
who were the most eminent ? What effect did it have ! 

296. What is said of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I What 
of Mary, Queen of Scots t 



MODERN HISTORY. 203 

and unfortunate woman, was, after Elizabeth, the next 
heir to the crown. Her friends contended that she was 
the lawful heir, and that Elizabeth had no right to the 
throne. Being educated a Catholic, and being guilty of 
many imprudences, she was obliged to flee from her 
Scottish subjects, and take refuge in England. Eliza- 
beth kept her in prison for 18 years, when she was con- 
demned for a conspiracy, and beheaded in prison. 

297. Spanish Armada. At the period of Queen- 
Elizabeth's reign, England and Spain were the two 
most powerful nations in Eiurope. Elizabeth was con- 
sidered the leader of the Protestants, and Philip, king 
of Spain, of the Catholics. Elizabeth having assisted 
some of the Protestant powers with whom he was at 
war, he determined upon the conquest of England. 
Philip spent three years in making preparations for a 
mighty effort. His fleet consisted of 130 ships of war, 
carrying 30,000 troops and seamen, and was the most 
formidable which Europe had ever before witnessed, and 
was named the Invincible Armada. Troops from Italy, 
Germany, Flanders, and Spain, were embarked, or or- 
dered to places from whence they might be sent over to 
England. The fleet entered the English channel in 
the form of a crescent, extending to the distance ot 
seven miles. It was met by the English fl^eet consist- 
ing of 108 ships, commanded by Howard, Draite, Haw- 
kins, and other distinguished commanders. The Span- 
ish fleet, being gradually weakened, and finally over- 
taken by storms, suffered an entire defeat, and only 50 
vessels, with 6,000 men, returned to Spain. 

298. Gunpowder Plot. In order to crush the power 
of the Catholics in England, King .Tames I. enforced 
those laws which were enacted against them by his 
predecessors. Under the Jesuits in England, a con- 



297. During Elizabeth's reign, what two nations were the 
jnost powerful ] Who determined to conquer England • What 
is said of the Armada ] 

298. By whom was the gunpowder plot formed, and for 
what purpose ? How was it discovered 1 



204 MODERN HISTORY. 

spiracy was formed, called the gunpotuder piot, the ob- 
ject of which was, to blow up the parliament house, 
while the king, queen, and parliament, were assembled 
in it. One of the conspirators hired a coal -cellar, in 
which he deposited thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, 
which was to be fired at the tine the king was deliver- 
ing his speech. The secret, which had been in the 
keeping of at least twenty persons, was discovered by 
means of a letter, written to prevent Lord Monteagle, a 
Catholic nobleman, from entering the house on that day. 
The letter was shown to the king, who caused a search 
to be made in the cellar, the evening previous to the 
meeting of parliament. Guy Fawkes, one of the con- 
spirators, was found in the cellar, with matches in his 
pocket, for firing the train. The other conspirators 
were discovered, and all suffered for their crime, in 1605. 
299. French Settlements in North America. By the 
discovery of .a new world, a spirit of enterprise was 
awakened in all the commercial nations of Europe. In 
1524, the French king sent out navigators, who ex- 
plored a great part of the coast of North America. Ten 
years afterwards, one Cartier was sent on another voy- 
age of discovery. He sailed up the St. Lawrence, as 
far as Montreal, took possession of the country in the 
name of the French king, and called it New France. 
This name was afterwards changed to Canada. In 
1540, Cartier, with a colony of 200 persons, began the 
first settlement in Canada, near the present city of Que- 
bec. The first French settlement in Acadie, now Nova 
Scotia, appears to have been effected in the year 1604. 
During the religious wars in France, Ribault, a French 
Protestant, was sent to make a settlement in America, 
as a retreat from persecution. He landed near Edisto 
river, in South Carolina, built a fort, which he called 
Carolina, and leaving a garrison of twenty men, he re- 

299. In what year did the French navigators explore the 
coast of North America"? What is said of Cartier ] Where 
did Ribault attempt to make a settlement, and what became of 
liis men 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 205 

turned to France. The men who were left, soon aftei 
mutinied, killed their commander, and put to sea. Hav- 
ing been out several weeks, and provisions failing, they 
fed on human flesh, and at last were taken up by an 
English ship and carried to England. 

300. First English Settlement. In 1584, Queen 
Elizabeth granted to Walter Raleigh authority to dis- 
cover, occupy, and govern, "remote heathen and barba- 
rous countries," not previously possessed by any Chris- 
tian prince or people. Raleigh immediately sent over 
two ships to America, the commanders of which landed 
at Roanoke, and took possession of the country. On 
their return, they gave such a splendid description of 
the beauty and fertility of the country, that Elizabeth 
named it Virginia, because the discovery was made 
during the reign of a virgin queen. After many unsuc- 
cessful attempts to establish a permanent settlement, 
Capt. Newport was sent with 1 00 adventurers to settle 
the island of Roanoke. By stress of weather, they 
were driven north of their place of destination, and 
entered Chesapeake bay. They sailed up the Pow- 
hatan, or James River, and in May, 1607, commenced 
the settlement of Jamestown, so named in honor of king 
James. This was the first permanent English settle- 
ment in North America. 

^ 300. What is said of Walter Raleigh ] Who named Vir- 
ginia 1 What is said respecting the settlement of Jamestown 1 



18 



PERIOD VIII 



DISTINGUISHED FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE ENGLISH 
NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 



Commencing a Settlement. 

FROM THE SETTLEMENT AT JAMESTOWN TO THE AMERICAN 
REVOLUTION. 

(168 YEARS.) 

301. Of the Virginia Settlers. During the first year, 
the colonists at Jamestown suffered severely from the 
scarcity and badness of their provisions ; disease soon 
made its appearance, which in a few months swept off 
more than half their number. But as new settlers were 
arriving, the colonists amounted to 200 at the end of the 
year. iMany of the settlers were very imprudent in 
their conduct towards the natives, and provoked them 
to hostility A party of 30 men was killed, and by a 
waste of their provisions a most distressing famine pre- 
vailed, long known afterwards by the name of the starv- 
ing time. So dreadful was its effects, that the colonists 
were reduced from 500 to 60. So disheartened were 
those that were left, that they embarked for England •, 

301. What is said of the colonists during their first year at 
Jaaiestown i What is suid of the starviny time ? 



MODERix HISTORY 207 

but meeting with Lord Delaware, with 150 men and a 
large supply of provisions, they consented to return 

302. Pocahontas, the Indian Princess. The most brave 
and enterprising of the Virginia settlers, was Capt. John 
Smith. Under a pretext of commerce, he was drawn 
into an ambush of a large body of Indians, who made 
him prisoner, and carried him to Powhatan, their king, 
who sentenced him to death. Capt. Smith was led out, 
and his head placed upon a large stone, ready for the 
fatal blow. iVt this moment, Pocahontas, the youngest 
and darling daughter of Powhatan, rushed to the spot 
where Capt. Smith lay, threw her arms about his neck, 
and placed her head on his, and declared that if the 
sentence was executed, the first blow should fall on her. 
The king was moved, and consented to spare his victim 
upon the condition of a ransom. The ransom was paid, 
and Capt. Smith returned safe to Jamestown. 

About three years after the above event, Capt. Smith's 
life was again saved by Pocahontas. Powhatan plan- 
ned a horrid scheme, for the entire destruction of the 
colony at Jamestown. His plan was to attack and mur- 
der them in time of peace. In a dark and stormy night, 
Pocahontas, like an angel of mercy, went alone to 
Jamestown, and disclosed the inhuman plot of her father. 
Pocahontas after this was married to an Englishman 
named Rolfe, with whom she went to England. She 
embraced the Christian religion, and after residing there 
several years, she died as she was about to embark for 
America. 

303. Indian Massacre inVirginia. In 1622, the Indians 
in Virginia entered into a conspiracy for the purpose of 
murdering all the inhabitants of the English settlement. 
The plan was matured with the utmost secrecy. While 

302. Who was the most enterprising of the Virginia set- 
tlers ] Who took him prisoner, and how was his life preserved 1 
How did Pocahontas save the colony from destruction ] What 
farther is said of Pocahontas] 

303. What plot did the Indians form against the English ? 
Describe the manner of its execution. During the war, how 
much were the settlements and colonists reduced ] 



208 MODERN HISTORY. 

engaged in the plot, they visited and traded with the 
English, and bought their arms of them, that they might 
accomplish their design. On the evening before the 
massacre, they brought the colonists presents of game, 
and visited them the next morning as usual ; suddenly 
at noon, when least expected, they fell upon the settlers, 
and murdered 347 men, women, and children. The 
destruction would have been more extensive, had not 
an Indian residing in one of the towns revealed the plot 
to his master. Information was given to part of the 
nearest settlements, and they were saved from the fate 
which fell upon others. The English were aroused to 
vengeance ; an exterminating war succeeded ; many of 
the enemy were destroyed, and the rest were driven far 
into the wilderness. During the war the settlements 
of the whites were reduced from eighty to eight. In 
1624, out of 9,000 persons who were sent from Eng- 
land, but 1800 existed in the colony. 

304. Of the Native Indians. It has long been a 
question among the learned, how America was first 
peopled. The opinion best supported is, that tribes of 
men passed over to this continent from the northern 
part of Tartary to the northwestern coast of America, 
as the two continents at this point are separated by 
straits only about 18 miles wide. The Indians in the 
northern parts of America were divided into many small 
tribes, governed by their sachems, or kings, and were 
often at war with each other. At the time of the ar- 
rival of the Europeans, the whole territory now em- 
braced within the limits of the United States and British 
America, was almost an unbroken wilderness. It has 
been estimated, that at this period there were but about 
150,000 Indians within the compass of the thirteen 
original states. A very mortal sickness is supposed to 
have prevailed among them, and swept off great num- 

304. How is it supposed that America was first settled 1 
What is said of the Indians, and how many is it estimated 
they were in numbers, in the limits of the United States and 
British America ] 



MODERN HISTORY. 209 

bers, a few years previous to the first settlement of the 
Europeans. 

305. Manners, Customs, <^c., of the Indians. The 
chief occupation of all the northern tribes of Indians, 
was hunting, fishing, and war. Their women were 
compelled to till the ground, and perform all the 
drudgery of their domestic affairs. Their clothing in 
summer was a slight covering about the waist ; in win- 
ter they clothed themselves with the skin of wild 
animals. Their habitations, which were called wig- 
wams, were made by erecting a strong pole for the 
center, around which other poles were placed and fixed 
to the center pole at the top, and then covered with mats, 
or barks of trees. Their warlike and domestic instru- 
ments were few and simple, — a tomahawk or hatchet of 
stone, bows and arrows, sharp stones and shells for 
knives and hoes. For money, they used small beads, 
wrought from shells and strung on belts, or in chains, 
called wampum. The Indians believed in the existence 
of a number of gods ; one, however, they considered 
greater than all the rest, and him they called the Great 
Spirit, who was the creator of all things ; their priests, 
or powows, who were also their physicians, had great 
influence over their minds. 

306. Of the Puritans. About the period of the first 
English settlement in America, a respectable body of 
Protestants in England were dissatisfied with the re- 
ligious state of things in that country. Queen Eliza- 
beth, though a Protestant, was rather arbitrary in some 
parts of her conduct ; she took violent measures to en- 
force uniformity in church discipline and service. Many 
of her subjects, though holding to the same doctrines as 
the established church, did not think it their duty to 
practice all its rites and ceremonies. They believed 

305. What was the chief occupation of the Indians *? What 
is said of their women ] How were they clothed ? Describe 
their wigwams, their warlike and domestic instruments, 
money, and their religious opinions. 

306. What is said of Queen Ehzabethl Who received the 
name of puritans 1 

IS* 



210 MODERN HISTORY. 

the English church retained too many of the popish 
forms and ceremonies, and manifested uncommon zeal 
in preserving the purity of divine worship ; hence they 
received the name of Puritaiis. 

307. Persecution of the Puritans. All those who 
would not conform to the established forms of worship, 
were subjected to severe penalties ; they were compel- 
led to collect for worship in private places, with great 
secrecy. Hundreds of puritan ministers were silenced, 
or deprived of their livings, and many were imprisoned 
while their families were starving. These persecurions 
were continued with little abatement, for about fifty 
years. The puritans, or dissenters, as they are some- 
times called, were at first very unwilling to separate 
from the established church, and made many efl^orts to 
obtain toleration ; but the queen and most of the bishops 
refused to grant the free exercise of their religious 
worship. In consequence of their persecutions, many 
of the puritans left their native country, passed over to 
Holland and formed distinct churches ; there they re- 
mained till the most of them emigrated to America. 

308. Plymouth Settlers. The colony at Plymouth 
was planted principally for the sake of the free enjoy- 
ment of civil and religious liberty. Mr. Robinson and 
his congregation, who left England in 1608, and re- 
moved to Holland, may be considered as the founders 
of the colony. Finding that the morals of their ctiil- 
dren would be corrupted by a residence in Holland, 
they resolved to emigrate to America. The first colony 
consisted of a part only of Mr. Robinson's congrega- 
tion, who purchased two small ships, and repaired to 
Plymouth, in England. One of their ships proving 
leaky, the passengers were all crowded into one ship, 

30? What is said of those who refused to conform to the 
established worship 1 How long did their persecutions con- 
tinue ? To what place did the puritans go when they left 
their native country 1 

308. For what purpose was the colony at Plymouth planted 1 
Who were the first colonists "? What is said of their voyage? 
When did they land, and at what time ] 



MODERN HISTORY. 



211 



and after a furious storm, arrived at Cape Cod, Novem- 
ber 10th. Before the landing, they formed themselves 
into a " body politic," and chose iMr. John Carver their 




Landing at Plymouth, 1620. 

governor, for one year. After much suffering from the 
severity of the weather, they selected a place for a set- 
tlement, which they named Plymouth. They landed at 
this place on the 22d of December, 1620. The anni- 
versary of their landing is still celebrated by the 
decendants of the Pilgrim Fathers, as a religious fes- 
tival. 

309. Si/fferincrs of the Pit/mouth Colonists. The 
whole company hat landed at Plymouth consisted of 
101 persons. Their situation and prospects were truly 
dismal and discouraging. The nearest European set- 
tlement was 500 miles distant, and from it no relief could 
be obtained, in case of famine or sickness. Sterile 
sands and gloomy forests were the principal objects that 
met their view ; they were worn down by excessive 
latigue, ihey suffered from the severity of the weather, 
and were without comfortable provisions br habitations. 

309. How many landed at Plymouth ] Give an account of 
their sufferings. 



212 MODERN HISTORY. 

Disease prevailed among them, and in three months forty- 
five of their number died. The sickness was so general 
that at times there were only six or seven well persons 
in the whole company. Amid all their trials and pri- 
vations, they bore their hardships with that patience, 
calmness, and resignation, which true Christianity alone 
can give. 

310. Dutch Settlements. In 1609, Henri/ Hudson, 
an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, discovered 
Hudson river, and ascended it about 160 miles. Four 
years afterwards, several Dutch merchants erected a 
fort, near Albany, which they named Fort Orange,, and 
a few trading-houses where the city of New York now 
stands. This place they named New Amsterdam ; the 
island on which the city is built was called, by the In- 
dians, Manhattan. The country on both sides of the 
Hudson river was called, by the Dutch, New Nether- 
lands. The Dutch also, in 1623, erected a fort on the 
Delaware, and ten years afterwards, one in Connecticut, 
where Hartford now stands. They remained in posses- 
sion of these places till a war broke out between Eng- 
land and Holland, and in 1664 they were surrendered 
to the English forces. Charles II. granted the iNew 
Netherlands to his brother, the duke of York and Alba- 
ny ; and in honor of the duke, the name of Manhattan 
was changed to New York, and that of Orange to Al- 
bany. 

311. Destruction of the Pequots. One of the most 
haughty and warlike tribes of Indians in New England, 
were the Pequots, who inhabited the southeastern part of 
Connecticut. In 1637, two years after the settlers ar- 
rived in this state, the Pequots having murdered a num- 
ber of persons, a force of 90 men, under Capt. Mason, 

310. Who discovered Hudson river, and at what time ? 
Where did the Dutch merchants erect a fort and trading- 
houses "? What name did they give these places and the 
country ] What year were they surrendered to the English ? 
VVhu gave the names New York and Albany ! 

311. Where did ihe Pequots reside, and what did they do'' 
Give an account of their destruction. 



MODERN HISTORY. 213 

was sent against them. In this expedition they were 
assisted by the Mohegans, a friendly :ribe, and by the 
Narragansetts. Capt. Mason, marching by night, at- 
tacked their fort by surprise: the conflict was despe- 
rate ; the wigwams in the fort were set on fire ; the roar 
of the flames, the yells of the savages, and the discharge 
of musketry, presented an awful and territic scene. The 
victory was complete. Out of live or six hundred Pe- 
quots who were in the fort, only seven or eight es- 
caped : the remainder were shot, or perished in the 
flames. 

312. King Philip's War. In 1675, Philip, an Indian 
sachem, who resided at Mount Hope, in Rhode Island, 
began the most general and destructive war ever sus- 
tained by the infant colonies. Philip, for a long time 
previous to the war, was jealous of the whites. His 
object appears to have been, to unite all the Indian tribes 
to make a combined eflx)rt to exterminate the colonists, 
and thus preserve their hunting-grounds and their inde- 
pendence. A Christian Indian, having made known to 
the colonists the plot against them, Philip caused him 
to be murdered. The murderers were tried and execu- 
ted by the English. Philip, to avenge their deaths, com- 
menced hostilities, and, by his influence, drew into the 
war most of the tribes in New England. 

The Indians at this period had acquired to some ex- 
tent the use of firearms, and the war soon became gen- 
eral. The savages hovered about the frontier settle- 
ments, burnt and ravaged several towns, and killed many 
of the inhabitants. In December, about 1 000 men, un- 
der the command of Gov. Windoto, marched through a 
deep snow to the Indian fortress in the Narragansett 
country, in Rhode Island. The conflict was bloody. 
Six captains and eighty men were killed, and 150 
wounded ; but the success of the English was complete. 
About 500 wigwams were burnt, and it is supposed that 

312. Who was Philip, and where did he reside] Give an 
account of the origin of his war. of the .swamp fighi, and of 
the loss of the English. How many Indians perished \ What 
became of Phihp ? 



214 MODERN HISTORY. 

about 1000 of the Indians perished. From thi." blow, 
called the swamp fight, they never recovered. The 
war, however, continued, till the August following when 
Philip was shot by a friendly Indian, in the vicinity of 
Mount Hope. Thus closed a most distressing war, in 



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which the English lost 600 men, the flower of their 
strength: 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, and 600 
dwelling-houses consumed. 

313. William Penn. The territory o^ Pennsylvania 
was granted to William Penn, from whom it derives its 
name. This grant was made by King Charles 11. of 
England, in 1681, for services rendered to the crown 
by the father of Penn, who was an Admiral in the Eng- 
Hsh navy. In October, 1682, William Perm arrived in 
the Delaware, with his colony of Friends or Quakers. 
He purchased of the natives the land for a city, which 
he called Philadelphia. He paid the natives for all the 
land he obtained, and at the same time gave them good 
counsel and advice, which proved of much service to 

313. To whom was Pennsylvania granted? What is said 
of Penn and his colony of Friends? How long did Penn's 
treaty continue ? Did the natives respect Penn and his fol- 
lowers ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 215 

them, and increased their affection for him. He conclu- 
ded a treaty of peace with the natives, which lasted more 
than seventy years. He parceled out his lands at mode- 
rate rents, enacted mild and just laws, and gave free tol- 
eration to all religious sects. The respect and love 
which the natives had for Penn and his followers were 
so great, that it is related as a fact, that in all their wars 
with the whites they never killed a Quaker, knowing 
him to be such. 

314. Salem Witchcraft. The year 1692 is memora- 
ble in New England for the convulsion produced in 
Salem and its vicinity by the supposed prevalence of 
witchcraft. Many were supposed to be bewitched, and 
would complain of being bitten, pinched, pricked with 
pins, &c. ; some declared that they beheld a spectral 
representation of the person whom they said was the 
cause of their affliction. Some were struck dumb, others 
had their limbs distorted in a shocking manner, some- 
times running on their hands and feet, creeping through 
holes, and under chairs, tables, &c. ; barking like a dog, 
with other actions equally strange and unaccountable. 
Upon the accusation and testimony of persons thus af- 
flicted, many were imprisoned, and nineteen were exe- 
cuted for practising witchcraft, most of whom died pro- 
fessing their innocence. The evil became awfully 
alarming ; the most respectable persons in the country 
were accused ; but the magistrates finally acquitted 
those Avho were accused, and the menacing storm blew 
•iver, to the great joy of the inhabitants. 

At this period many learned and eminent men, both in 
England and America, fully believed in the existence of 
witchcraft. Sir Matthew Hale, of England, one of the 
greatest and best judges that ever sat in a court of jus- 
tice, repeatedly tried and condemned persons as crimi- 
nals, who were brought before him charged with this 
crime. 

314 How were persons affected who were supposed to be 
bewitched ? How many were executed for practising witch- 
craft 1 What is said ot Matthew Hale and others ] 



216 MODERN HISTORY. 

315. Account of the Bucaneers. Between the years 
1630 and 1700, the seas and some of the West India 
islands were infested by a set of pirates and freebooters, 
called hucaneers. They originated from some French 
vagabonds who had commenced a plantation at St. Kitt's, 
one of the West India islands. They were driven 
from it by the Spaniards, and fled to Hispaniola, now 
Hayti. There they subsisted for a time by hunting swine 
and cattle. They acquired the name of bucaneers from 
the practice of drying their meat, called in French 
" hoiicanerr Having lived some time in this way, some 
of them became pirates, and others cultivated the soil. 
Many of them established themselves upon the isle of 
Tortuga, and there fortified themselves. They had a 
mortal hatred to the Spaniards, and often plundered their 
ships and put all their crews to death. They were the 
terror of every trader to the shores of America. When 
loaded with booty, they returned and divided it, and 
spent their time in all kinds of debauchery, until it was 
expended. 

The bucaneers had all things in common ; and when 
their plunder was gone, they were completely destitute. 
Their numbers increased so rapidly from Europe, that 
they became terrible to all Spanish America. With an 
army of 1200 men they attacked several Spanish towns, 
murdering the people and plundering the houses. Among 
these towns was Carthagena, which they plundered of 
its effects to the amount of seven or eight millions of 
dollars. But, while on their return, they fell in with a 
fleet of Dutch and English ships, which defeated them, 
and took and destroyed a number of their vessels. 
From this check they never recovered. They were 
hunted down by the nations of Europe till they were de- 
stroyed. 

316. Sovereigns of the House of Stuart. On the 
death of Queen Elizabeth, James, the sixth king of 

315. At what time were the West Indies infested by the 
bucaneers 1 How did they originate, and what is said of them 1 
What town did they plunder of seven or eight millions of dol- 
lars ] How wer« they defeated and destroyed ? 



MODERN HISTORY, 217 

Scotland, of that name, ascended the throne of England. 
He was the son of Mary, queen of Scots, the nearest 
relative of Elizabeth, and the rightful heir by descent. 
He was of the Stuart family, — a race of sovereigns 
distinguished for a succession of misfortunes, and their 
love of arbitrary power. By the accession of James, 
the crowns of England and Scotland became united, 
and eventually made the two kingdoms one. As James 
was educated a Presbyterian, the puritans hoped that 
they would enjoy the toleration of their religious wor- 
ship. But they were greatly disappointed, and many 
fled and commenced settlements in New England. 
James was an arbitrary monarch, and held to the divine 
right of kings to govern their subjects without control. 
He was succeeded by Charles /., who inherited the 
same principles with his father. Charles married a 
daughter of the French king, who was a zealous papist, 
and whose influence over the king is regarded as one 
of the principal causes of his calamities. 

317. Tyranny of Charles I. Charles, soon after he 
ascended the throne, was offended with the parliament 
for refusing to grant him sufficient supplies to carry on 
a war with Spain. He then proceeded io raise money 
without their authority. One of these methods was by 
a tax called ship-money. Charles claimed the right to 
command his subjects to provide and furnish ships, to- 
gether with men, victuals, and ammunition, in such 
numbers, and at whatever time he should think proper ; 
a claim contrary to the magna charta of English liberty. 
A noble stand was taken against this tax by John Hamp- 
den, a man of great talents and patriotism, and had the 
effect of rousing the nation to sustain their liberties. 
Charles also created great discontent by his endeavor- 
ing to regulate the religious afi'airs of the nation : by 

316. Who ascended the English throne after Elizabeth] 
What is said of the Stuart family 1 What is said of James, 
and Charles L, his ancestors 1 

317. How did Charles proceed to raise money 1 Who 
withstood this tax ? In what other way did Charles create 
discontent ? 

19 



218 MODERN HISTORY. 

the advice of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, he in- 
troduced new ceremonies in the church, and endeav- 
ored to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland. The last 
attempt was most violently opposed by the Scots. 

318. War between Charles and the Parliament. 
Charles, by his despotic acts, particularly his imprison- 
ing and impeaching a number of the members of par- 
liament, kindled the flame of civil war. In 1642, both 
parties resolved to terminate the contest by the sword. 
The cause of the king was supported by the greater 
part of the nobility and gentry, and by the Catholics ; 
that of the parliament by the common people of the 
country, the merchants and tradesmen of the towns, 
and the opponents of Episcopacy. The supporters of 
the king were styled Cavaliers ; those of the parliament, 
Roundheads, — a name given to them by their adversa- 
ries, because they cropped their hair. The war raged, 
with various success, for nearly five years ; but at 
length the royalists were overcome, and Charles fell 
into the hands of his enemies. 

319. Execution of Charles I. The parliament, now 
under the influence of the army, instituted a high court, 
consisting of 1-33 members, to try Charles as a tyrant, 
traitor, and murderer. Charles denied their authority to 
try him, and would not make any defense. He was, 
however, condemned to sulfer death, by being beheaded. 
The unfortunate king submitted to his fate with fortitude 
and composure. Having laid his head on the block, one 
of the masked executioners severed it from his body by 
a single blow : the other holding it up, exclaimed, 
" Behold the head of a traitor." Charles, though un- 
wise, imprudent, and unfaithful in his promises as a king, 
had nevertheless many virtues in private life ; and it is 
said of him, "He would have made a much better 

318. What caused the civil war \ By whom was the cause 
of the king supported 1 Who supported that of the parlia- 
ment, and what names were given to each party 1 

319. By whom was Charles tried? Relate the manner of 
his death. What is said of his character ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 



219 



6gn.-e in private life than he did upon athrone." He was 
executed on the 30th of January, 1649, in the 49th 
year of his age. 





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Execution of Charles the First. 

320. Oliver Cromwell. The army of the parliament 
during the war against the royalists, was commanded 
by able officers, of whom Oliver Cromwell was the most 
distinguished. Without the aid of birth, wealth, or in- 
fluential connections, he rose to be the head of three 
powerful kingdoms. On the death of Charles I., mon- 
archy and the House of Lords were both abolished by 
the Commons, and a republican government established. 
The parliament at first was under the influence of the 
Presbyterians ; next the Independents gained the ascend- 
ancy; then the power passed into the hands of the 
ix'-my of whom Cromwell had the management. Pre- 
vious fo his taking the sovereign power, Cromwell 
forcibly dissolved the Long Parliament, so called from 
its having been in session 12 years. This body hav- 
ing become jealous of Cromwell, determined to reduce 
the army, and thus diminish his power. Cromwell 

320. Who was Ohver Cromwell 1 What was done on the 
death of Charles ? What is said of the Long Parliannent 1 
Of Barebone's Parliament ^ What title did Cromwell receive % 



220 MODERN HISTORY. 

perceiving their object, went with 300 of his sol- 
diers to the parliament, turned the members out of the 
house, and locked the door. A new parliament was 
formed, often called Barebone's Parliament, from a lead- 
ing member of that name, who was a leather dresser. 
After this body was dissolved, Cromwell was declared 
Protector, and became in every respect a king, except 
the name. 

321. The Conimoniuealth. Character of Cromwell. 
The commonwealth of England is dated from the death 
of Charles I. to the restoration of monarchy under his 
son, Charles II ., a period of about eleven years. During 
this period, when ur»der the government of Cromwell, 
the nation arrived to a great degree of prosperity, and 
became the most powerful in Europe. The protector 
granted religious toleration, caused justice to be faith- 
fully administered, and his officers of government were 
generally men of moral and religious principles, and vice 
was discountenanced at his court. He deieated with 
ease his enemies at home and abroad, and his power 
was everywhere respected, and the short period of the 
protectorate was the most brilliant found in English his- 
tory. Cromwell died in the 69th year of his age, and 
was succeeded by his son, Richard, who soon resigned 
the office of protector, and retired to private life. Crom- 
well, in his private life, was exemplary, — though some- 
what of an enthusiast, yet he appeared to be deeply im- 
pressed with religious feelings. His army, also, in a 
remarkable manner, partook of the same spirit. By 
many writers, Cromwell has been represented as a re- 
ligious hypocrite; but, (as it has been well observed,) 
this supposition is contradicted by the whole course of 
his life. 

322. Of Russia. Peter the Great. Russia was raised 
from a state of barbarism and ignorance by Peter the 
Great, who reigned from 1696 to 1725. Previous to 

321. How long did the Commonwealth continuo? What 
was the stale ot the nation under Cromwell 1 Who succeeded 
him 1 What is said of Cromwell's character 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 221 

this time, the history of Russia is obscure and linim 
portant. It is said to have received the light of Chris- 
tianity in the tenth century. The Russian sovereigns 
receive the title of Czar, a word which signifies king. 
Peter, after ascending the throne, wishing to form a 
navy and to gain knowledge personally, disguised him- 
self and went to Holland, where he engaged hitnself as 
a workman in one of the dock-yards. There he labored 
^ith his own hands, and was fed and clad like the rest 
of the workmen. He also attended lectures on various 
su')jects while in Holland. From Holland he went to 
England, where he perfected himself in the art of ship- 
building. Having returned to Russia, he laid the foun- 
dation of a northern capital, which was named after 
himself, St. Petersburg. He endeavored, by every 
means, to introduce among his people a taste for the arts 
and sciences. Though defeated a number of times by 
the Swedes, he gained a great victory over them at Pul- 
towa, by which means he extended the bounds of his 
kingdom. 

3^1. Of Sweden and its Sovereigns. This country, 
with Norway, was the original seat of the Goths and 
Vanddls, and was the Scandinavia of the ar»cients. In 
the early part of the 16th century, Gustavus Vasa, a 
descendant from the ancient kings, delivered his coun- 
try f.on the oppression of Christian II., of Denmark. 
He inuoJuced the Protestant religion, and promoted the 
welfare of his subjects. Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed 
the Great, is ranked among the greatest commanders of 
modern times, and took the part of the Protestants in 
Germany. He was killed in the battle of Lutzen. 

Charles XII. was one of the most remarkable men of 
his time. His ruling passion was the love of glory. 
Ho succeeded to the throne at the age of 15 years, and 
wiien only a boy of 17, he defeated the Russians, Poles 

32'2. Who raised Russia from a state of barbarism] What 
did i^eter do alter he ascended the throne I What ca{ital dia 
he tbuiid ? 

3^3. What was Sweden originally] What is said of Gus- 
tavus Vasa I Gustavus Adolphus ] What of Charles XII. ] 
19* 



222 MODERN HISTORY. 

and Danes, who had attacked his dominions on three 
sides. After a course of victories, he was signally de- 
feated by the Czar Peter, at Pultowa. Charles now 
fled into Turkey, where he raised the Turks against the 
Russians. While in this country, he conducted like a 
madman, and was ordered to leave it. After his return 
to Sweden, he was killed by a cannon ball, while be- 
sieging a Norwegian fortress ; and his death gave re- 
pose to the country. 

324. Of Prussia and the two Fredericks. Prussia 
has existed as a kingdom from the year 1700. Modern 
Prussia is a kingdom formed from several small states, 
united by marriage or conquests. Frederick William, 
the father of Frederick the Great, was of singular habits ; 
he was economical in the extreme, and hardly expended 
any thing except on his soldiers. He raised a regi- 
ment of men, whom he called his giants. He collected 
them from all parts of Europe, not one of whom was 
less than seven feet high. He was rough and savage 
in his manners, and brutal in his conduct towards his 
own family. He would knock down, with his fists, the 
princes and princesses, his own children, and at times 
they would be half famished. 

Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne in 1740, 
and, having the best army in Europe, was ambitious of 
military glory and conquest. He conquered Silesia, 
and published a declaration of war against Maria The- 
resa, empress of Germany, who was aided by the 
French and Russians. The contest was carried on for 
seven years ; more than half a million of men perished 
on the field of battle. Frederick, notwithstanding the 
great superiority of numbers against him, maintained 
his ground, and acquired the name of the greatest com- 
mander of the age. The state of parties, at the end of 
the war, remained nearly the same as at the commence- 
ment. Frederick, besides being a military hero, aimed 

324. How long has Prussia existed as a kingdom 1 What 
is said of Frederick William ? WHiat is said of the military 
transactions ? What was his character ] 



MODERN HISTORY. "* 223 

at the reputation of being a philosopher and pDet, ani 
was the author of a number of works in prose and verse. 
He appeared to have no moral or religious principles, 
and was addicted to various kinds of vice. Atheists 
and libertines were his companions, particularly the 
infidel French philosopher, Voltaire. 

325. Of Holland. The Netherlands, in which Hol- 
land is included, during the early period of their history, 
comprised various small states, governed by counts and 
earls. These states at different periods belonged to the 
various powers in Europe. In 1555 they were transfer- 
red to Philip II., king of Spain. The Reformation at 
this period had made considerable progress in the Neth- 
erlands. Philip, with a view to repress it, established 
the Inquisition, and committed other oppressive acts ; 
and to enforce them, sent an army under the duke of 
Alva. Seven of the provinces revolted. William^ 
prince of Orange, raised an army, and effected the in- 
dependence of the Seven United Provinces, or Holland, 
in' 1579. The remaining ten were called Flanders. 
After the Dutch provinces were free from Spain, they 
rose by industry and enterprise to a great degree oi 
prosperity, and became one of the most formidable na- 
val powers in the world, particularly at the time of the 
Commonwealth of England. 

326. Of Gcrmaiiy. In the ninth century, Charle- 
magne divided the empire of the West among his suc- 
cessors, into three monarchies, France, Germany, and 
Italy ; Germany, however, was called, by way of emi» 
nence, the empire. Before the time of Charlemagne, 
Germany appears to have been divided into a number 
of small independent states, who frequently united in 
defence of their common liberties ; they were not, how- 

325. What is said of the early history of the Netherlands 1 
What caused the revolt of the Seven United Provinces ] What 
were the remainder called ] What is said of the Dutch provin- 
ces, when freed from Spain 1 

326. Into what monarchies was the western empire divided ? 
What is said of Germany ] Of Charles ] Of Austria ^ Who 
assisted the Protestants \ 



224 MODERN HISTORY. 

ever, considered of much importance till the time of 
Charlemagne, who is to be considered, in some respects, 
as the founder of the German empire. It has had a 
long line of distinguished sovereiorns, among whom 
Charles V. presented the novel spectacle of voluntarily 
resigning his dominions and retiring to a monastery, 
after reigning 40 years. 

During the reign of Ferdinand L, Austria, one of the 
most powerful of the German states, made an effort to 
extinguish the Protestant religion in the empire. In 
1626, the Protestant princes, at the head of whom was 
Gustavus, of Sweden, united against the emperor, and 
the war of thirty years ensued, which ended by securing 
an equal establishment of the Protestant and Catholic 
religions. In this war, the Protestants were assisted 
by the Catholics of France, who took this method to 
humble the growing Austrian power. 

327. French and Indian Wars. From the earliest 
settlement of the English colonies to the treaty of Paris, 
in 1763, they were often harassed by frequent wars 
with the French and Indians. The French had settled 
in Canada, on the north, and in Louisiana, on the south 
of the colonies ; they had also explored the country 
along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and pretended 
the English had no claim to the territory west of the 
Alleghany mountains. In order to strengthen their 
possessions, they attempted to establish a chain of forts 
from Canada to Florida, back of the English settlements. 
They also used much art to gain over the various tribes 
to their interest, in which they were generally success- 
ful. The Indians, instigated, and sometimes accompa- 
nied by the French, came down upon the English, de- 
stroyed their settlements, and murdered or carried away 
captive the inhabitants. These and other injuries were 
soon succeeded by open war. 

328. King William's and Queen Anne^s Was. The 
war during the reign of William and Mary, in England, 

327, How long were the English colonies harassed by the 
French and Indian wars 1 Relate the proceedings of the 
French. 



MODERN HISTORY. 225 

commonly called " King William's tmr," commenced in 
1690, and continued about seven years. In the depth of 
winter, Coimt Frontenac, governor of Canada, fitted out 
three expeditious against the colonies— one against New 
York, a second against New Hampshire, and a third 
against the province of Maine. The party destined 
against New York fell upon Schenectady in the dead 
of night, burnt the place, and massacred the inhabitants. 
The second party, who went to New Hampshire, burned 
Salmon Falls, and killed 30 men. The third party pro- 
ceeding from Quebec, destroyed Casco, in iMaine, and 
killed and captured 100 people. The colony of Mas- 
sachusetts, roused by these proceedings, fitted out an 
expedition under Sir William Phips, who took posses- 
sion of Nova Scotia. Another expedition was fitted out 
by New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, to take 
Montreal and Quebec, but this was unsuccessful. 

Queen Anne's war commenced in 1702, and continued 
about ten years, and many places in New England were 
ravaged by the French and Indians, from Canada. The 
colonies fitted out a number of expeditions against Cana- 
da, but were generally unsuccessful. They, however, 
took Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, and in honor of Queen 
Anne, named it Annapolis. 

329. Indian War in Carolina. In 1715, the Yama- 
sees, a powerful tribe of Indians, inhabiting the southern 
border of South Carolina, formed a general conspiracy 
of all the neighboring tribes, to destroy the English set- 
tlements. Upwards of 6,000 warriors were engaged in 
the plot. They commenced by murdering 90 persons, 
»vho were in Pocataligo and around Port Royal. The 
iihabitants of Port Royal escaped by embarking on 

328. How long did King William's war continue? What 
ixpeditions did Count Fronienac fit out, and what is said of 
them] What did the colonies do ^ What is said of Queen 
Anne's War 1 

329. What tribe formed a conspiracy in South Carolina'? 
How did it succeed ] Who defeated the Indians in their camp, 
and where did they flee to ] 



226 MODERN HISTORY. 

board a vessel and sailing to Charleston. On a p/anta- 
tion by Goose Creek, there were 70 whites and 40 faith- 
ful blacks, who were protected by a parapet, and they 
determined to keep their post. Their courage failed 
them on the first attack, and they surrendered ; but the 
moment they were in the hands of the enemy, they were 
all massacred. The Indians now advanced still nearei 
Charleston, but were repulsed by the militia. Governoi 
Craven, with 1200 men, marched against the ravagers 
and found them in their great camp, at a place called 
Saltcatchers. After a severe and bloody battle, he de 
feated and drove them from the province. The greatest 
part of them fled to Florida, and were received by the 
Spaniards. 

330. Capture of Louisburg. In March, 1744, war 
having again broke out between Great Britain and 
France, the legislature of .Massachusetts planned a daring 
but successful enterprise against Louisburg. This 
place was on the island of Cape Breton, and was con- 
sidered one of the strongest places in America. The 
fortifications had been twenty-five years in building, and 
had cost the French five millions and a half of dollars. 
About 4,000 men from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
and Connecticut, under the command of Gen. Pepperell, 
sailed from Boston for the conquest of this place. Hav- 
ing the assistance of four ships of war, under Commo- 
dore Warren, the troops arrived at Louisburg about the 
1st of May, 1745, and commenced the siege. For four- 
teen nights successively, the New England troops, 
sinking to their knees in mud, drew their cannonr> and 
mortars through a swamp two miles in length. By this 
means the siege was pushed with so much vigor, that 
the garrison surrendered on the 15th of June, to his 
Britannic maje.sty. 

331. Br addock's Defeat. The French continuing 

330. Who planned the expedition against Louisburg 1 What 
IS said of its fortifications ? How many troops went from the 
colonies in this expedition ] What is said of the exertions ot 
the New England troops 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 227 

. ^ir encroachments on the back settlements, ih e British 
ministry tooiv measures to drive thern from the country. 
fo effect this, they sent Gen. Braddock with an army, 
who arrived in Virginia in April, 1755. He was joined 
by Colonel (afterwards General) Washington, with a 
body of Virginia troops ; the whole force consisted of 
two thousand men, which marched for the French fort 
on the Ohio. General Braddock, with 1200 of his 
troops, on the 9th of July, arrived within seven miles of 
Du Quesne, a French fortress, which stood where Pitts- 
burg is now built. The troops advanced in heavy col- 
umns, and passing through a narrow defile, they fell 
into an ambush of French and Indians, who poured in 
a deadly fire upon them. The British troops fired at 
random, as they could not see their foe. The slaugh- 
ter at this time was dreadful among the officers : Wash- 
ington was the only one on horseback, who was not 
either killed or wounded. He had two horses shot un- 
der him, and four bullets passed through his coat. 
After Braddock had received a mortal wound, his troops 
fled in confusion. The Virginians under Washington 
covered the retreat of the regulars, and saved them 
from entire destruction. 

332. Progress of the War. The British generals who 
were sent over during the campaigns of 1756 and 1757, 
were unsuccessful and unpopular in the colonies. A 
change in the British ministry took place, and William 
Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) was placed at the head 
of the administration. This caused a change in the 
military operations. Fifty thousand men were raised, 
of which 20,000 were raised in America. Three ex- 
peditions were planned.. The first against Louisburg, 
which had been given up to the French, the second 
against Tico?ideroga, and the third against Fort Du 

331. Who was sent to drive the French from Ohiol By 
whom was Braddock joined] Relate the circumstances ot 
his defeat. 

332. What is said of William Pitt? How many men were 
raised, what expeditions were planned, and with what success ? 



223 M.ODERN HISTORY. 

Quesne. Gen. Amherst subdued Louisburg, after ton 
siderable resistance, and took nearly 6,000 men prison- 
ers. In the attack on Ticonderoga, Gen. Abercrombie 
was defeated, with the loss of 2,000 men. Fort Du 
Quesne was taken by Gen. Forbes, who changed its 
name, and called it, in honor of VVm. Pitt, Pittsburg. 

333. Capture of Quebec. The command of the ex- 
pedition against Quebec, was given to Gen. Wolfe, a 
young officer, who had distinguished himself at the 
capture of Louisburg. With an army of 8000 men, he 
landed in June, 1759, near Quebec, on the island of 
Orleans, just below the city. Quebec was a place of 
immense strength, and was at this time strongly gar- 
risoned, by a force under Montcalm, an officer of dis- 
tinguished merit. Failing in a number of attempts to 
make an impression on the city. Gen. Wolfe formed the 
bold design to ascend a steep craggy cliff, to an elevated 
plain called the Plains of Abraham, which commanded 
the city. This he effected under the cover of night, 
and before sunrise his whole army were arrayed on the 
plain in order of battle. A bloody action ensued. 
Wolfe and Montcalm were both mortally wounded, the 
French were defeated, and the city surrendered. Wolfe 
died in the moment of victory. As he lay fainting in 
death, hearing the cry, " they fly," asked, " who fly ?" 
" The French," was the reply. " Then," said he, " I 
die happy," and expired. Montcalm, who was carried 
into the city, when told he could not live but a few 
hours, replied, " so much the better ; I shall not live to 
see the surrender of Quebec." By the capture oi 
Quebec, Canada came into the possession of Great 
Britain. This put a period to the French and Indian 
wars in America. 

334. Causes of the American Revolution. Soon after 
the termination of the French and Indian wars, troubles 
assailed the colonies from a new quarter. The mother 
country began Co assert her dominion over them, and in- 

333. What did Gen. Wolfe do, in order to take Quebec ? 
Relate the dying words of Wolte and Montcal ji. What fol- 
lowed the c;iptnre of Qwphec ] 



MODERN HISTORY. 229 

terfered in their civil concerns, in a mannt r that created 
serious alarm for their liberties. Great Britain had, by 
her laws of trade and navigation, confined the trade ot 
her colonies almost wholly to herself, and, in some 
cases, had even prohibited the establishment of manu- 
factories in America. The colonies were treated as a 
distinct and lower class of subjects, and the British 
ministry, under the pretext of obtaining payment for the 
expense they had been at for defending them, claimed 
the right to raise ni'jney from them by taxation. The 
colonists, on the other hand, contended that as they 
had no representatives in the parliament, they could not 
be taxed without their consent, without violating their 
rights as British subjects. The claim of this right, on 
the one hand, and the denial of it on the other, may be 
considered as the cause of the American revolution. 

335. Stamp Act. The British parliament, in the year 
1765, passed the famous Stamp Act, for the purpose of 
raising a revenue from the colonies. This act required, 
that all paper and parchment which was used in the 
transaction of business, should be stamped, and a tax 
paid for it to the government. The act also declared 
that all writings on unstamped materials, should be null 
and void. When the news of this reached America, it 
excited the indignation of the people, and they deter- 
mined to resist its execution. The day on which this 
act was to take place, Nov. 1st, 1765, the bells were 
muifled and tolled, and the shops were shut. In Bos- 
ton, the effigies of the royalists were carried about and 
torn in pieces. At Portsmouth, a coffin was made on 
which was inscribed. Liberty, aged 145, and a proces- 
sion followed it to the grave. In New York, the Stamp 
Act was cried about the streets, under the title of the 
folly of England, and the ruin of America. Many of 

334. Relate the treatment of Great Britain towards her 
colonies. On what ground did the colonies contend against 
the mother country 1 What may be considered as the cause 
of the revolution ? 

235. Give an account of the Stamp Act. How was it re- 
ceived in America 1 What took place in Portsmouth ^ In 
New York ? 

20 



230 MODERN HISTORY. 

the citizens assembled in the evening, broke open the 
governor's stable, and took out his coach and carried it 
about the city, suspended his effigy on a gallows, with 
a stamp bill in one hand and the figure of the devil in 
the other. After this, the gallows, the effigy, and the 
coach, were consumed in a bonfire, amid the shouts ot 
the spectators. Similar proceedings took place in many- 
parts of the country, and the obnoxious act was soon 
after repealed. 

336. Destruction of Tea at Boston. The British min- 
istry still persisting in their right to tax the colonies, 
had, for this purpose, given permission to the East India 
Company to ship a large quantity of teas to America, 
charged with duty. The Americans, fixed in their op- 
position to the principle of taxation in any shape, op- 
posed the landing of the tea. In New York, and in 
Philadelphia, the cargoes sent out were returned with- 
out being entered at the custom-houses. In Boston, the 
tea being consigned to the royal governor, (Hutchinson,) 
the populace, " clad like the aborigines of the wilder- 
ness," with tomahawks in their hands, and clubs on their 
shoulders, without the least molestation, marched through 
the streets with silent solemnity, amidst innumerable 
spectators, and proceeded to the wharves, boarded the 
ships, demanded the keys, and without much delibera- 
tion, knocked open the chests, and emptied several 
thousand weight of the finest teas into the ocean. 

Intelligence of this transaction reached the British 
ministry, and in 1774, they passed an act to restrain all 
intercourse by water with the town of Boston by closing 
the port. They also removed the government and pub- 
lic offices to Salem. 

336. Give an account of the destruction of tea in Boston. 
What did the British ministry do with regard to Boston ] 



PERIOD IX. 

DISTINGUISHED FOR REVOLUTIONS. 




FROM THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION TO THE PRESENT TIME. 

337. Continental Congress. In September, 1774, del- 
egates from all the colonies except Georgia, assembled 
in Philadelphia. This body was composed of 55 mem- 
bers, and is generally called the First Continentu'l Con- 
gress. Their first act was an approval of the conduct of 
the people of Massachusetts, in resisting the arbitrary 
proceedings of the British government. They insisted 
on their rights as British subjects, and resolved to break 
off all trade with Great Britain, till their rights were ac- 
knowledged. They also drew up a petition to the king, 
and addresses to the people of Great Britain and the 
colonies. After a session of eight weeks, the congress 
dissolved themselves, after recommending that another 
should be held the next year. Although the resolutions 
of congress possessed no legal force, yet they were more 
faithfully observed than the laws of the best regulated 
state. The Americans now began to train themselves 
to the use of arms, and made vigorous exertions to sus- 
tain themselves in the coming conflict. 

337. What is said of the First Continental Congress ? What 
did they do 1 Were their resolutions observed 1 What did 
Great Britain do, on the news of these proceedings 1 



232 



MODERN HISTORY. 



When the news of these proceedir gs reached Great 
Britain, Mr. Pitt (Lord Chatham) adv(.»cated the Ameri- 
can cause in the British parliament, and endeavored to 
effect a reconciliation ; but his efforts were in vain — 
parliament declared 3. rebellion existed in Massachusetts. 
In the beginning of 1775, the army in Boston was in- 
creased to 10,000 men, which number was deemed suffi 
cient to reduce the colonies to submission. 




British troops firing on the Americans, at Lexington. 

838. Skirmish at Lexington. The Americans ha vini^ 
deposited a considerable quantity of stores at Concord, 
about 18 miles from Boston, General Gage, who com- 
manded the British forces at Boston, sent a force of 800 
men in order to destroy them. On the evening of the 
18th of April, at 10 o'clock, the British troops with cjreat 
secrecy commenced their march for Concord. They 
were, however, discovered, and the alarm was rapidly 
spread by church bells and signal guns. When the 
British troops arrived at Lexington, they found about 70 
of the militia assembled near the meeting-house. Major 
Pitcairn, of the British troops, rode up to them and called 



338. What is said respecting the American stores at Con- 
cord ? Relate what took place at Lexington. 



MODERN HISTORY. 233 

out, " Disperse you rebels ; throw down your arms and 
disperse.^^ Not being obeyed he discharged his pistol, 
and ordered his men to fire. Eight of the Americans 
were killed, and a number wounded. This was the first 
blood shed in the revolution. The British effected their 
purpose in destroying their stores ; but on their return 
to Boston were severely harassed by the Americans. 

339. Battle of Bunker's Hill. A considerable army 
was collected near Boston, by the Americans, for the 
purpose of dislodging the British from that place. To 
accomplish this, 1000 men were ordered, on the night 
of the 16th of June, 1775, to throw up a breast-work on 
Bunker's Hill ; but in consequence of a mistake they 
took possession of Breed's Hill, which is nearer Boston. 
Before the return of light they had nearly finished a 
strong redoubt. As soon as the fortifications of the 
Americans were discovered, a severe cannonade was 
commenced from the ships, to destroy the progress of 
the works. The roaring of the cannon alarmed the in- 
habitants of Boston and the surrounding towns, and soon 
the steeples, the roofs of the houses, and the adjacent 
hills, were covered with spectators, to witness the scene. 
As nothing was accomplished by the cannonade, a body 
of 3000 men, commanded by General Howe, was landed, 
and advanced to the attack. As the British troops were 
advancing, orders were given to set Charlestown on fire, 
and the place, containing 400 houses, was laid in ashes. 
The Americans allowed the enemy to approach within 
a short distance, and then discharged a shower of mus- 
ket balls into their ranks, which did such execution as 
caused them to retreat. They rallied a second time ; 
again the Americans suffered them to approach, and 
again they poured in upon them a fire which effected 
such carnage that it caused them to retreat to the banks 

339. What did the Americans do, in order to dislodge the 
British from Boston 1 How were the American works first 
attacked 1 What place was burnt on their advance 1 Describe 
the battle. What is said of General Clinton 1 What was the 
loss on each side 1 

20* 



234 MODERN HISTORY. 

of the river. At this time General ('linton, who had 
observed the battle from Boston, crossed over with a 
reinforcement, to assist his countrymen. By his exer- 
tions the troops were again rallied, and marched up to 
the entrenchments with fixed bayonets. The Ameri- 
cans, having expended their ammunition, and having no 
bayonets, were forced to retreat. The loss of the Bri 
tish was over 1000 men, while the Americans had only 
100 killed, and 300 wounded ; among the killed, how- 
ever, was General Warren, a brave officer and firm 
patriot. 

340. Arnold's March through the Wilderness. The 
Americans, wishing to get Canada into their possession, 
sent Colonel Arnold, with a detachment of the army, by 
a new and unexplored route. Arnold ascended to Ken- 
nebec, and after crossing the mountains which divide 
Canada from Maine, he descended the Chaudiere to the 
St. Lawrence. The army encountered great difficulties 
in their march of 300 miles, through an uninhabited 
country, abounding with swamps, woods, and craggy 
mountains, which so opposed their progress, that for a 
part of the time they only went four or five miles a day. 
One third of their number were obliged to return : pro- 
visions were so scanty, that some of the men ate their 
dogs, leather, small clothes, and shoes. Still they pro- 
ceeded with unabated fortitude, and on the third of No- 
vember, after thirty-one days spent in traversing a tedi- 
ous desert, they reached the inhabited parts of Canada, 
to the astonishment of the inhabitants. 

341. Assault on Quebec, and Death of General Mont- 
gomery. In 1 775, General Wlontgomery , a native of Ire- 
land, but ardently attached to the American cause, was 
entrusted with the command of the expedition against 
Canada. After taking Montreal, he joined the force 

340. What route did Arnold take to get into Canada 1 What 
difficulties and sufferings were encountered ? 

341. What is said of General Montgcnr.ery'? Describe the 
assault on Quebec. What is said of the appearance of the 
bodies of the soldiers who were killed 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 235 

which Arnold had led through the wilderfiCss, and ad- 
vanced to the siege of Quebec. On the last day of the 
year, 1775, General Montgomery, under the cover of 
night, and during a snow storm, made an assault on the 
city. In passing a barrier, a gun from a battery was 
discharged, which killed him and his two aids. The 
division commanded by Arnold took a battery, bul he, 
being wounded, was compelled to leave the field. His 
men fought bravely ; but being bewildered and be- 
numbed amidst the darkness and snow, and being una- 
ble to retreat, surrendered. A shocking spectacle was 
presented in the morning after the assault, by the ap- 
pearance of the bodies of the soldiers who were killed : 
they were frozen stiff in the various distortions produced 
by the agonies of death. 

342. Declaration of Independence. Notwithstanding 
the active war now carried on by the colonies, they still 
considered themselves subjects of the British king, con- 
tending for constitutional liberty. But the determined 
Hostility of the British government induced them to dis- 
solve their connection with the mother country. A 
pamphlet entitled Common Sense, written by Thomas 
Paine, in which the excellencies of a republican gov- 
ernment were described, and the monarchical system 
ridiculed, produced a great effect on the public mind. 
On the 7th of June, a motion was made in congress by 
Richard He7iry Lee, of Virginia, and seconded by John 
Adams, of Massachusetts, for declaring the colonies 
free and independent. A committee, consisting of Jef- 
ferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston, were 
appointed to prepare a Declaration of Independence. 
'J'he Declaration, written by Mr. Jefferson, was adopted 
by congress, by almost an unanimous vote, on the Ath of 
July, 1776, by which the thirteen United States of 
America were declared free and independent. 

342. How did the colonies at first consider themselves 1 
What IS said of the pamphlet entitled *' Common Sense V 
Who u)ade the motion in congress for a Declaration of Inde- 
pendence? Who were the committee appointed to prepare a 
Declaration, and by whom was it written ] 



236 MODERN HISTORY. 

343. Battle on Long Island. In June, 1776, the 
British fleet arrived at Sandy Hook, having on board 
35,000 troops, inckiding a body of Hessians, from Ger- 
many, a body of cavalry, and warlike apparatus of every 
kind. Washington's force consisted of only 17,000 
men, most of whom were inexperienced, and weakened 
by sickness. While in this state they erected fortifica- 
tions on Long Island, and prepared to resist the enemy. 
Before hostilities commenced, General Howe, the com- 
mander of the British forces, sent one of his officers to 
Washington, and proposed conditions of peace, which 
amounted to little more than the offer of pardon. Wash- 
ington observed, that as the Americans had not com- 
mitted any crime, they wished for no pardon. The offi- 
cer returned, and both parties prepared for action. On 
the 22d of August, the British troops landed on the 
southwest side of the island, and gained the rear of the 
American army. On the 27th the attack began ; but 
the Americans being exposed to the fire of the Hessians 
in frontj and the British regulars in the rear, were de- 
feated, with a loss of 1200 men. After this defeat, 
General Washington commenced a silent retreat on the 
night of the 29th, which was effected with complete 
success. An army of 9000 men, with all their cannon, 
tents, and baggage, were transported to New York, over 
a difficult ferry of a mile in breadth, without being dis- 
covered by the enemy. 

344. Death of Captain Hale. After the retreat from 
Long Island, Washington was very desirous of gaining 
some knowledge of the future designs of the enemy. 
For this purpose, General Washington applied to Colo 
nel Knowlfon, who communicated this request to Cap- 
tain Nathan Hale^ of Connecticut, who at once nobly 

343. What number of British troops arrived in 1776 ? 
What is said of Washington's force ? What of the proposals 
of peace ] What was the result of the battle on Long Island, 
and of Washington's retreat? 

344. For \\hat service did Capt. Hale offer himself? Re- 
late the circumstances of his execution. 



MODERN HISTORY. 237 

offered himself for this hazardous service. He passed 
in disguise to Long Island, examined every part of the 
British army, and obtained the desired information re- 
specting their situation and future operations. While 
on his way back, he was arrested and carried before 
Sir William Howe. The proof of his object was so 
clear, that he acknowledged it ; and he was ordered to 
be executed next morning. Before he was executed, 
he requested a clergyman and a Bible. Both were re- 
fused ; and the letters which he wrote to his mother and 
friends were destroyed. The only reason given for this 
unfeeling conduct was, " That the rebels should not 
(vnow that they had a man in their army who could die 
with so much tirmness." This patriot was a young man 
of amiable character, and he died lamenting that he had 
but one life to lose for his country. 

345. Retreat of Washington and Battle of Trenton. 
General Washington, after a series of disasters, was 
obliged to retreat from New York towards Pennsylva- 
nia, being pursued by the enemy. This retreat was at- 
tended with circumstances of a psinful and trying na- 
ture. The army, which had consisted of 30,000 men, 
was diminished down to scarcely 3000, and these were 
without provisions, without pay, and many of them very 
poorly clothed. Their footsteps were stained with 
blood as they fled before the enemy. Such was the 
desperate condition of the American cause, that many 
who had been most confident of its success, began to 
despond and give up all as lost. 

In this season of general gloom, the American con- 
gres-s recommended to each of the stales to observe " a 
day of solemn fasting and humiliation before God." 
Washington felt it important to make a desperate effort 
in behalf of his country. On the night of the 25th of 
December, 1776, the American army re-crossed the 
Delaware, and marched to attack the Hessians, who had 

345. Relate the circumstances of Washington's retreat 
through New Jersey. Give an account of the battle of Tren 
ton. How many of the enemy were captured ? 



238 MODERN HISTORY. 

advanced to Trenton. The sun had just risen as the 
tents of the enemy appeared in sight. VVashiuoton, 
rising on his stirrups, waved his sword and exclaimed, 
"There, my brave friends, are the enemies of your 
country ; and now ail I have to ask is, to remember 
what you are about to fight for. March !" The troops, 
thus animated by their commander, pressed on to the 
charge. The Hessians were taken by surprise, about 
1000 of them made prisoners, and 40 killed, among 
whom was their commander. 

346. Expedition of General Burgoyne. In 1777, it 
was determined in England to invade the states through 
Canada. An army was to be sent by the way of Lake 
Champlain to Hudson River, and effect a communica- 
ion with their forces at New York ; and by having the 
command of the Hudson, they expected to cut off the 
communication between New England and the other 
states. For this purpose, Gen. Burgoyne, with a chosen 
army of 7000 men, besides Canadians and Indians, 
moved down from Canada towards Albany. Having 
obtained possession of Ticonderoga, he led his army to 
Fort Edward, on the Hudson. The militia of New 
England and New York were aroused to stop the pro- 
gress of the invader, and beset him on every side. 

Burgoyne, wishing to obtain provisions, sent Col. 
Baurn to Bennington, in Vermont, to seize the American 
stores. They were signally defeated by Col. Stark, 
with the loss of 600 men. Burgoyne, collecting his 
forces, encamped at Saratoga. After a number of ob- 
stinate battles, Burgoyne finding his provisions nearly 
exhausted, his retreat cut off, and surrounded by a brave 
army, was forced to surrender to Gen. Ga^e^his whole 
army consisting of 5,752 effective men, on the 17ih ol 
October, 1 777. This event caused great joy among the 
Americans, and hastened their alliance with France 
which was effected in February, 1778. On the 20th ol 

346. What was the plan of Burgoyne's invasion'? H - 
far did he penetrate? Give an account of his defeat. Wl 
effect did his surrender have 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 239 

March, the American Commissioners were received at 
the Court of France, as the representatives of a sister 
nation. 

347. Treason of Arnold. In the year 1780, a plot 
of great danger to the American cause, was timely dis- 
covered. The author of the plot was General Arnold, 
who, being wounded, was appointed to a command in 
Philadelphia. For his extravagance and haughty con- 
duct he was reproved by the American congress. This 
aroused his passions, and he determined to have re- 
venge. General Washington still valued him for his 
bravery, and entrusted him with the command of the 
important post at West Point. This post he determined 
to deliver up to the enemy To effect this he entered 
into anegociation with Sir Henry Clinton, through Major 
Andre, of the British army, who came in disguise to 
West Point, and concerted with Arnold upon the time 
and method of seizing the fort. Andre obtained a pass- 
port from Arnold, under a disguised name, and set out 
on his way to New York. He succeeded in passing 
all the outposts of the American army without suspicion. 
About 30 miles from New York, as he was entering the 
village of Tarrytown, three militia men who came that 
way, stopped him, and asked him where he was hound. 
He did not answer this question, but asked them where 
they belonged. They said, " below.'''' Mistaking them 
for men of his own party, he informed them that he was 
a British officer, and could not be detained. When ar- 
rested, he offered them a large reward if they would 
release him. But these men, though poor, were not to 
be bribed ; and after examining his person, found evi- 
dence of his being a spy, in the papers which were hid 
in his boots. Andre was tried and executed as a spy, 
at Tappan, N. Y., October 2d. Arnold, hearing of the 
capture of Andre, made his escape to the British, and 
was made a brigadier general in their army. 

348. Sufferings of the Ainerican Army. The Ameri- 
can army often suffered extremely during the revolu- 

347 What is said of Gen. Arnold ? What did he attempt 
to do ? Relate the circumstances of the capture of Andre. 



240 MODERN HISTORY. 

tionary war, for the want of food and clothing. While 
they were encamped at Morristown, during the severe 
winter of 1780, their sufferings were unusually severe. 
Congress, having hut little money or credit, were obliged 
to issue a paper currency, commonly called continental 
money ^ in order to carry on the war. This became so 
much reduced in value, that the four months' pay of a 
soldier would not procure a bushel of wheat, and the 
pay of a colonel would not procure oats sufficient for his 
horse. The necessities of the army were so great, 
that Gen. Wa^shington was obliged to send out detach- 
ments to procure provisions at the point of the bayonet ; 
and many a soldier, contending for American freedom, 
perished through hunger, cold, and disease. 

349. Arrival of the French Troops. In July, 1780, 
M. de Ternay, with a French fleet, consisting of seven 
ships of the line, besides frigates, and 6000 land forces, 
commanded by Count de Rochamheau, arrived at New- 
port, in Rhode Island. The troops were landed, which 
gave new life to the American councils and arms. The 
fleet, however, suddenly returned to France, and, at 
that time, all hope of naval assistance vanished. The 
land forces remained, and rendered important assistance 
in bringing the war to a close. Before the treaty with 
France, the young Marquis de Lafayette.^ a French noble- 
man, ardent in the cause of liberty, hired a ship at his 
own expense, came over to America when nineteen 
years of age, and joined the army under Washington. 
He was appointed a major general, and by his services 
through the war, gained the aff'ections and gratitude of 
the American people. 

350. War in the Southern States. During the latter 
part of the period of the revolutionary war, the most 
important military operations were in the southern states. 
The British generals found it much easier to make an 

348. Where did the American army encamp during the se- 
vere winter of 1780 ? What is said of the continental money, 
and the necessities of the army 1 

349. How many French troops arrived in 1780, and by 
whom were they commanded 1 What is said of Lafayette ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 241 

impression here, as it was much less populous than at 
the north. Savannah and Charleston were both taken 
by the enemy, and a great part of the country was con- 
sidered as conquered. Gen. Gates being appointed to 
the command of the southern American army, was routed 
by Lord Cornwallis. After this, Gen. Green carried on 
the war against the British forces, with vigor and suc- 
cess. Gen. Morgan and Gen. Marion, two veteran 
American commanders, greatly distinguished themselves 
in the war in this section of the country. 

351. Capture of Cornwallis. Lord Cornwallis having 
collected a large army in Virginia, Washington resolved 
to concentrate his forces against him. The main body 
of the American army was at this time at White Plains^ 
in the vicinity of New York. After making a show of 
attacking New York, in order to deceive the British 
commander, and prevent him from sending assistance 
to Cornwallis, Washington, with his army, suddenly 
left his camp at White Plains, crossed the Hudson, and 
passed rapidly on to Virginia. When he arrived there, 
a French fleet, under Count de Grasse, appeared in the 
Chesapeake, and a body of French troops were landed 
from the fleet, to assist the Americans. 

The combined force of the Americans and French, 
under the command of Washington, 12 or 13,000 in 
number, besides the militia, closely invested the British 
at Yorktoicn. Cornwallis being closely blockaded by 
sea and land, and the besiegers regularly advancing 
upon him with a tremendous cannonade, he was obliged 
to surrender, with upwards of 7000 men, on the 19th 
of October, 1781. 

352. Conclusion of the War. As the capture of 
Cornwallis was considered as deciding the war, the 

350. Why did the British remove the seat of the war to 
the southern states 1 What places did they take, and what 
army did they defeat 1 What is said of Gen. Green and 
Marion 1 

351. Relate the proceedings of Washington before he went 
on to attack Cornwallis By whom was he assisted, and by 
what means was Cornwallis captured 1 

21 



242 MODERN HISTORY. 

news was received by the American people with emo 
tions of the greatest joy. Divine service was perform 
^d in their armies, and a day of thanksgiving was re 
commended and observed throughout the United States 
In Great Britain a new ministry was appointed, who 
advised the king to discontinue all farther efforts to sub- 
due the Americans. On the 30th of November, 1782, 
provisional articles of peace were signed, by which the 
independence of the United States was acknowledged. 
The final treaty was concluded at Versailles, in France ; 
in which the United Colonies were admitted to be 
" Free, Sovereign, and Independent States." Thus 
ended the revolutionary war, which cost Great Britain, 
in addition to the loss of her colonies, one hundred 
million pounds sterling, and about 50,000 subjects. 

353. Disbanding of the Army. When the American 
army was about to be disbanded, serious difficulties 
arose with respect to the payment of their wages. The 
paper, or continental money, with Vv^hich the soldiers had 
been paid, was worthless. Many of the officers and 
soldiers could not make a decent appearance in point 
of dress, and the families of others were suffering at 
home. Many of the officers had expended their private 
fortunes in the service of their country, and had the 
prospect of being dismissed in poverty, with no pro- 
vision for their future support. In this state of things, 
addresses were privately circulated among the officers, 
designing to stir them up to violent measures to obtain 
their just rights. This was a most dangerous crisis. 
By the effi)rts and entreaties of Washington the rising 
tumults were quelled, and the army was disbanded in 
peace. Washington delivered to the president of con- 
gress his military commission, and retired to private life. 

354. Confederation of the States. In 1778, a plan ot 
confederation and perpetual union was formed by con- 

352. What effect did the capture of Oornwallis have in the 
United States, and in Great Britain ? When was the inde- 
pendence of the United Stales acknowledo^ed ? 

353. What was the state of the American army when about 
to be disbanded '^ What took place at this time 1 



MODERN HISTORY. . 243 

gress, and submitted for the consideration of the states, 
which was finally agreed to by all the state legislatures. 
The states were compelled, during the war, to act in 
concert, by the principle of common safety ; and the 
resolutions of congress were generally carried into 
effect by the several state legislatures. When freed 
from external dangers, the weakness of the confedera- 
tion began to appear. Congress had no power to levy 
taxes, to supply their treasury ; the sums voted for the 
pu!)lic service were apportioned to each state, which 
raised the money in a way they thought the most proper. 
The states soon became delinquent, and the national 
treasury was left unsupplied. Congress then attempted 
to raise a revenue by a duty on foreign goods ; this was 
agreed to by all the states except Rhode Island and 
New York, and their opposition defeated the measure, 
355. Organization of the Federal Government. The 
confederation being found utterly insufficient to accom- 
plish the ends of a national union, delegates were as- 
sembled for the purpose of consulting on the formation 
of some general and efficient government. This body 
adjourned, and recommended that a general convention 
should be held the next year. Accordingly, in May, 
1787, delegates from all the states except Rhode Island, 
assembled at Philadelphia, and appointed Gen. Wash- 
ington their president. " After four months' delibera- 
tion, in which the clashing interests of the several states 
appeared in all their force," the convention agreed to a 
frame of government, which was finally agreed to by 
all the states. On the 30th of April, 1789, Gen. Wash- 
ington was inaugurated \\\e Jirst president of the United 
States. The ceremony was performed in the open gal- 
lery of the Federal Hall in New York, and the oath 
was administered by Chancellor Livingston, in the pres- 

354. What is said of the confederation 1 How were the 
laws of congress carried into effect 1 What is said of the at- 
tempt of congress to raise revenue ? 

355. By what means was the federal government organized ? 
Who was inaugurated the first president, at what time, and 
where was the ceremony performed 1 



244 . MODERN HISTORY. 

ence of a countless multitude of spectators. Frorn this 
moment the American republic has steadily advanced 
in a tide of prosperity and growing power. 

356. Causes of the French Revolution. The French 
revolution, which commenced in 1789, and convulsed 
the whole civilized world, was brought on by a variety 
of causes. Previous to this time, the French people 
were borne down by a load of taxation, to support the 
extravagance and profligacy of their monarchs. The 
nobility and clergy had many privileges which were 
not allowed to other subjects, especially their exemp- 
tion from taxes. The common people were despised, 
yet they bore all the burdens and expenses of the state. 
The feelings of liberty were much excited by the 
American revolution, especially on the return of the 
French officers and army from the United States. The 
fearful horrors accompanying the revolution, may be 
ascribed to the general prevalence of infidelity through- 
out all classes of the French people. The atheistical 
writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other French phi- 
losophers, brought on a feart^ul state of public morals. 

357. Of the National Assembly. The French mon- 
arch, Louis XVI., wishing to restore the disordered state 
of the finances to order, convoked the notables, a bocly 
selected from the higher orders. To this body it was 
proposed to lay a land tax, proportioned to property, 
without any exception of the nobility or clergy ; this 
measure they refused to sanction. The assembly of 
the states general was now called, which was composed 
of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and the third estate, 
or commons. This body, which had not been assem- 
bled since 1614, was convened in 1789. Difficulties 
arose in this assembly how questions should be decided. 

356. What was the state of the French people previous to 
the revolution of 1789? What is said of the nobility, clergy, 
common people, and of the effect of the American revolution? 
What is said of the prevalence of infidelity ? 

357. What did Louis XVL do with regard to his finances? 
What assemhli(!s were convened? What is said )f the na 
tional assembly \ 



MODERN HISTORY. 245 

At lenorth the commons, together with such of the no- 
bility and clergy as would join them, seized upon the 
legislative authority, and constituted themselves the 
naiioaal assembly. After this body was formed, there 
remained nothing of the monarchy but the name. 

358. Progress of the Revolution. As Louis showed 
some disposition to oppose the proceedings of the na- 
tional assembly, the people were thrown into a state of 
violent commotion. The bastilc, a huge state prison, 
long an engine of tyranny, was demolished by the pop- 
ulace. Other excesses were committed, in the city and 
elsewhere, by the furious rabble, and by mobs of women 
of the vilest character. The king and royal family 
were forced by the mob to remove from Versailles to 
Paris, and were protected from violence by the influence 
of Lafayette, who at this time commanded the national 
guard. 

The progress of the revolution was rapid. The privi- 
leges of the nobles and clergy were abolished ; reli- 
gious liberty and the freedom of the press established ; 
the church lands confiscated ; the religious houses sup- 
pressed ; and France was divided into 83 departments. 
After these measures were accomplished, the assembly 
next proceeded to form a constitution. The king, find- 
ing his situation perilous, escaped from Paris, with his 
family, but was stopped on the frontiers and brought 
back. A constitutism, which established a limited mon- 
archy, and the equality of all ranks, was accepted by 
the king. 

The next assembly which met, was under the influ- 
ence of the Jacobin club, so called from its place of 
meeting, in a suppressed convent of Jacobin monks. 
At this period the hostile armies of Austria and Prussia 
were ready to enter France, and the people imagined 
the king and the nobility were confederated with them. 

358. How were the people thrown into commotion? What 
is said of the bastile] The royal family ] Lafayette? What 
was done with regard to the nobles, clergy, and constitution ' 
What is said of the Jacobins \ 
21* 



246 



MODERN HISTORY. 



The prisons of Paris were filled with the nobility 
priests, and opulent citizens, and the Jacobins urged the 
necessity of destroying them before the enemy sho;ild 
reach the capital. Accordingly bands of ferocious 
assassins burst open the prisons and murdered 5000 
persons. 




l-.a: rut I 



/..y ///r GaiUotiue. 



359. Trial and Expcution of Louis XVI. in Sep- 
tember, 1 792, the national convention commenced their 
deliberations. They abolished the regal government, 
and declared France a rcp'ihlic. Louis was arraigned 
before their bar, to answer to various charges, which 
he answered with composure and dignity. His ene- 
mies being bent on his destruction, the convention de- 
cided that he was guilty of a conspiracy against the 
liberties of the nation, and the security of the state. 
By a majority of five voices only, out of 721 voters, he 
was condemned to suffer death by the gtiillotinp. < 'ne 
of the most influential men in procuring the death of the 
king, was the duke of Orleans, one of his relatives, who 
was distinguished for his low and infamous vices. 



359, What did the national convention do ? What is said 
of the trial of Louis XVL ? Of the duke of Orleans'! State 
the circumstances of the execution of Louis. 



MODERN HISTORY. 247 

On the 2 1 St of January, 1793, Louis w^s broi.ght out 
for execution, and ascended the scatfold in the presence 
of a large concourse of spectators, with a firm step. 
He attempted to address the multitude, but was pre- 
vented by the beating of drums, and the ex'ecutioner was 
ordered to perform his office. At this moment his con- 
fessor called to him from the foot of the scaffold, " Son 
of St. Louis, ascend to Heaven," and immediately the 
ax of the guillotine severed his head from his body. 

360. Triumph of Infidelity. After the death of the 
king a revolutionary tribunal was erected under Robes- 
pierre.^ Marat, and their associates, monsters of deprav- 
ity and cruelty. Their bloody domination is usually 
styled " The Reign of Terror."" It was during this 
period that the national convention suppressed the 
Christian religion, and declared that death was an eter- 
nal sleep ; they abolished the Sabbath, and a respite 
from Jabor was allowed on every tenth day. They also 
passed a decree that the only French deities hereafter 
should be Liberty, Equality, and Reason. This last 
deity, represented by a naked prostitute, was drawn in 
triumph through the streets of Paris, and all the princi- 
pal officers of the city and national government joined 
in the parade. The queen and sister of Louis XVL 
were guillotined, and as each faction gained the ascen- 
dency, they put to death all who opposed them, and the 
blood of victims flowed in every part of France. 

3G1. Of the Directory and Napoleon Bo?iaparte. Af- 
ter the fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins, the exe- 
cutive power was entrusted to a directory of five, and 
the legislative power in two councils. The sovereigns 
of Europe, from the commencement of the French revo- 
lution, were fearful that the disorganizing principles of 
the revolutionists would be extended to their dominions. 
t 

360. What is said of Robespierre and Marat 1 What did 
the national convention decree ? What is said of the differ- 
ent factions 1 

361. What was the directory "? What did the sovereigns of 
Europe do ? What is said of Napoleon Bonaparte I What 
of bis military operations in Eg3rpt? 



248 >?ooEfi.v m«TORY. 

In order lo stop them they formed coalitions against 
France, by which nearly all the European nations were 
drawn into war. France, however, sustained herself 
against all her enemies, and such was her energy, that 
she had at command, in 1794, ane million of fighting men. 

In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte, r native of Corsica, in 
the 27th year of his age, was entrusted with the com- 
mand of an army against Italy. He had commenced 
his military career as a lieutenant, and rose rapidly to 
distinction. Italy was soon conquered. In 1798, Gen. 
Bonaparte, with an army of 40,000 men, was sent to 
conquer Egypt. He took Alexandria by assault, after a 
great slaughter of the Ma?nelukes and Arabs. By the 
battle of the Pyramids he took possession of Cairo ; 
but by the battle of the Nile, in which Lord Nelson de- 
stroyed the French fleet, Bonaparte was finally obliged 
to return to France. 

362. Bonaparte the First Consul and Emperor. On 
the return of Bonaparte, he found that the ill conduct of 
the directory had brought the country to the brink of 
ruin. By the aid of some friends, and a military force, 
Bonaparte abolished the directory and caused himself 
to be elected first consul. From this period the affairs 
of the republic took a new turn. The military force 
was reorganized ; Bonaparte by his energy put down all 
the various factions which had raged in the empire ; 
corrected many abuses ; restored order and tranquillity 
lo the government, and commenced a career of victori- 
ous conquests, which have no parallel in modern his- 
tory. He defeated the Austrians at the great battle of 
Marengo, in 1800, and was afterwards elected first con- 
sul for life, with supreme power. In 1804, Bonaparte 
was proclaimed emperor of France, and was crowned 
by the pope ; and the next year he assumed the title of 
king of Italy. ♦ 

362. To what office was Bonaparte elected after his return ] 
What is said of the affairs of the republic after this periud ? 
In what year was Bonaparte proclaimed emperor of Fraiice * 
By whom crowned] 



MODERN HISTORY. 249 

363. Battle of Aust^'rlUz. Alarmed at the growing 
power of Napoleon, Austria and Russia formed a coali- 
tion against him. Napoleon, as usual, beforehand with 
his enemies, advanced rapidly into Austria, and became 
master of Vienna, the German capital. At Austerlitz, 
in December, 1805, he met the combined armies of 
Russia and Austria. The force on each side was 
nearly equal, and the three emperors, of France, Russia, 
and Austria, being present, gave great interest and en- 
ergy to the contest. The French army advanced to 
the attack at sunrise, with shouts of " long live the em- 
peror.'''' At one in the afternoon, after a severe battle, 
victory was decided in favor of the French, who took, 
more than 30,000 prisoners, and 150 pieces of cannon. 
By this victory Austria was humbled, and submitted to 
humiliating conditions of peace. 

364. Other Victories of Napoleon. Napoleon, in 
order to strengthen his power, united several German 
states into a union, called the " Confederation of the 
Rhine,'^ of which he was chosen protector. The great 
increase of power acquired by this alliance, was a 
cause of jealousy, and in 1806, another coalition was 
formed against him, by Prussia, Russia, Austria, Swe- 
den, and Ergland. Prussia, who began the war, was 
overthrown by a great battle at Jena. The following 
year he defeated the Russians, and with the Prussians 
forced them to agree to shut their ports against Great 
Britain, and gave their assistance in excluding British 
commerce from the continent. Napoleon, now trium- 
phant, disposed of crowns and kingdoms at his will. 
His brother Louis was appointed king of Holland ; the 
crown of Spain was conferred on his brother Joseph ; 
Jerome, another brother, was made king of Westphalia., 

363. What nations formed a coalition against Napoleon '^ 
Where did he defeat them, and what is said of tlie battle ? 

364. What formed the confederation of the Rhine] What 
coalition was now formed against Napoleon 1 Where were 
the Prussians overthrown ? What crowns did Napoleon con- 
fer upon his relatives ? 



250 



MODERN HISTORY. 



a new kingdom formed from Prussia, and Murat, who 
had married his sister, was raised lo the throne of 
Naples. 




Retreat of ike French Army from Moscow, 

365. Napoleon's Campaign in Russia. The Empe- 
ror Alexander, of Russia, refusing to concur with the 
French emperor in excluding British commerce from 
the continent, gave rise to a war which commenced in 
1812. With an army of nearly half a million of men, 
collected from almost every nation in Europe, Napoleon 
advanced to the conquest of Russia. After the battle 
of Borodino, which terminated the lives of seventy-five 
thousand human beings, the French army entered Mos- 
cow, in September, 1812. The Russians, in order to 
deprive the French of winter quarters, destroyed their 
provisions, abandoned the city, set it on fire, and three 
fourths of this ancient capital was laid in ashes. 

This unexpected sacrifice on the part of the Russians, 

365. What gave rise to Napoleon's war against Russia ? 
How many men in Napoleon's army, and what is said of the 
battle of Borodino? WImt caused the ruin of Napoleon ? 
What did he offer, and what was \w obliged to do "? Describe 
the retreat of his army. How many survived to cross the 
frontier 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 251 

vaused the ruin of Napoleon. Being without quarters, 
and short of provisions, he offered terms of peace. The 
Russians rephed that they could listen to no terms, 
while an enemy remained in their country. No alter- 
native was now left but to retreat towards the frontiers. 
One of the most distressing scenes on human record 
now followed. A Russian winter, unusually severe, 
now set in with all its horrors. The wretched soldiers, 
pursued by the Russians, overcome by hunger, cold, 
and fatigue, sunk down by thousands, and were left by 
their companions to perish amid the Russian snows. 
About 30,000 horses perished in one day, by the se- 
verity of the weather. It is stated that not more than 
50,000 men, (being one man in ten,) survived to recross 
the Russian frontier. 

366. Defeat of Napoleon hy the Allies. Napoleon 
having effected his retreat to the Russian frontiers, with 
a remnant of his army, left it and fled in disguise to 
Paris. He resolved to hazard another campaign, and 
raised a fresh army of 350,000 men. As the Russians 
advanced in the pursuit of the French army, they were 
joined by the Prussians and Austrians. Napoleon met 
the allied armies in Germany, and gaining some ad- 
vantages over them, was entirely routed at the great 
battle of Leipsic, in which more than 400,000 comba- 
tants were engaged : a greater number than has been 
engaged in any battle in modern times. The allies fol- 
lowed up their victory and entered Paris in April, 1815. 
Napoleop was now obliged to abdicate the throne af 
France, and retire to Elba, a small island near Italy. 
Louis XVIII. now ascended the throne of his ancestors. 

367. Napoleon^s Return from Elba. A general con-" 
gress was assembled at Vienna, in order to arrange the 
affairs of Europe. While they were deliberating on 
these matters, Napoleon, dissatisfied with his situation at 
Elba, made an effort to regain the throne of France. 

366. What did Napoleon do, after his defeat in Russia ! 
What is said of the battle of Leipsic 1 What was Napoleon 
obliged to do 1 



2b2 MODERN HISTORY, 

He landed at Frejiis, with a small force, without oppo- 
silioM. Wherever he appeared to the soldiers, even 
those who were sent to oppose his march, received 
him with the shout, " long live the emperor /" In 20 days 
from his landing at Frejus he found himself quietly 
seated on the throne, without having shed a drop of 
blood. Louis XVIII., on his approach to Paris, fled to 
the frontiers, and the allied powers immediately took, 
measures to prosecute a war against Napoleon, whom 
now they pronounced to be a traitor and an outlaw. 

368. Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon having collected 
an army of 150,000 men, suddenly passed into Belgium, 
and attacked the Prussian and British armies. The 
Prussians were commanded by Blacker, and the British 
by Wellmgton, who had distinguished himself in the war 
with the French forces in Spain. The French com- 
menced a furious assault upon the Prussians, who 
retreated, leaving 15,000 of their number dead and 
wounded on the field of battle. The British troops, 
after bravely withstanding the French, fell back to the 
village of Waterloo. Here, on the 18th of June, 1815. 
a memorable battle was fought, in which the French 
were totally routed, with the loss of 40,000 in killed and 
wounded. Napoleon tied to Paris, abdicated the throne, 
and afterwards went on board of a British ship of war 
and surrendered himself to the hospitality of the Britisu 
people. By direction of the allied sovereigns, he was 
sent a prisoner to the island of St. Helena, in October, 
1815 ; and there died in May, 1821, in the 52d year of 
his age. 

369. War between the United States and Tripoli. 
The cruisers of Tripoli, one of the Barbary states, hav- 
ing seized a number of the American merchantmen, 
and enslaved their crews, Commodore Preble, in 1803, 

s 

367. Where was the general congress assembled, and for 
what purpose 1 Give an account of Napoleon's return from 
Elba. What did Louis XV HI. and the alhed powers do ^ 

368. How large an army did Napoleon collect ? Where 
did he go ? Whom did he attack] What is said of the battle 
of Waterloo ? What did Napoleon do after the battle of 
Water](H), and what l)p;-;ime of him '^ 



MODERN HISTORY. ' 253 

was sent vvilh a squadron to obtain redress. Preble re- 
peatedly attacked and bombarded the city of Tripoli, 
although strongly defended, with such success that the 
haughty bashaw was chastised and humbled into a peace. 
Closely connected with the above is the celebrated ex- 
pedition of Gen. Eaton, across the deserts of Barca. 
Hamet, who had a claim to the throne of Tripoli, was 
joined by Gen. Eaton in Egypt. They mustered a 
force of about 400 men, consisting of a few Americans 
and Greeks, the remainder principally Arabs. Eaton 
led this motley force from Egypt, through the sandy 
deserts of Barca, to Derne, through many adventures 
and sufferings. After attacking Derne a peace was ef- 
fected with the Tripolitans., 

370. War between the United States and Great Bri- 
tain. During the war with Great Britain and France, 
the Americans wished to preserve a neutrality. Jeal- 
ousies, however, arose between the contending powers 
respecting the conduct of the Americans, and both na- 
tions passed decrees and orders which injured the Amer- 
ican commerce. The Americans had an additional 
cause of irritation from Great Britain, in her claiming 
the right of search, in order to find her subjects, and 
seize them, while in service on board American vessels. 
The British also impressed some thousands of Ameri- 
can seamen into their service. In 1807, the American 
congress laid an embargo on all the shipping in the 
United States ; in 1809, the embargo was removed, and 
non-intercourse with France and Great Britain was sub- 
stituted. On the 18th of June, 1812, congress declared 
war against Great Britain. 

371. Progress of the War in 1812. In July, Gen. 
Hull, with upwards of 2000 men, crossed over into 

369. Who was sent against the Tripolitans ? For what 
purpose 1 With what effect ? State what is related con- 
cerning Gen. Eaton. 

370. How was the American commerce injured ? What 
additional cause of irritation from Great Britain ^ What was 
done by the American congress ' 

22 



254 MODERN HISTORY. 

Canada, apparently for the purpose of attacking Maiden. 
This place being reinforced, and a large body of British 
and Indians collecting, Hull retreated to Detroit, and 
being besieged, he surrendered his army and the terri- 
tory of Michigan, to Gen. Brock. A second attempt to 
invade Canada was made by Gen. Van Rensselaer, who 
crossed the Niagara, with about 1000 men, and attacked 
the British at Queenstuwn. After an obstinate engage- 
ment he was forced to surrender. 

While defeat and disgrace attended the attempts of 
the Americans to subdue Canada, brilliant success fa- 
vored the American flag on the ocean. In August, Capt. 
Hull, who commanded the frigate Constitution, cap- 
tured the Guerriere. In October, Capt. Decatur, com- 
manding the frigate United States, captured the Mace- 
donian. In November, Capt. Jones, commanding the 
Wasp, took the British sloop of war Frolic. In De- 
cember, the Constitution, commanded by Capt. Bain- 
bndge, captured the Jaca. In these four engagements 
the loss of the British in killed and wounded, was 423 ; 
that of the Americans only 73. 

372. The war in 1813. In January, about 800 men, 
under Gen. Winchester, were surprised and defeated at 
Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, by the British and In- 
dians under.Gen. Proctor. Many of the Americans, af- 
ter they had surrendered, were inhumanly murdered by 
the Indians. In May, a detachment of 1700 Ameri- 
cans, under Gen. Pike, took possession of York, in 
(yanada. Gen Pike, with 100 of his men, was killed 
by the explosion of a mine. In May, 1000 British 
troops, under Sir George Provost, made an attack on 
Sackett's Harbor, but were repulsed by Gen. Brown. 

371. What is said of Gen. Hull I What of the invasion of 
Gen. Van Rensselaer ^ What ships were taken by the Amer- 
icans on the ocean ] What was the loss of the British and 
Americans in these engagements ] 

372. What is said of the surprise of Gen. Winchester 1 
How was Gen. Pike killed, and what place did his soldiers 
take 1 Give an account of the victory on Lake Erie. Where 
was Tecumseh killed, and what is said of him 1 What Amer- 



MODERN HISTORY. 255 

The most brilliant affiir in this year, on the side of the 
Ami^ricans, was t!ie capture of the British (leet on Lake 
Eric, by Cominodore Perry. I'he British fleet con- 
sisted of six vessels, carrying 63 i^ims ; the Americans 
had nine vessels, and 56 guns. The conflict lasted for 
three hours ; but the victory was complete. Perry an- 
nounced his victory in the following laconic epistle • 
" We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 

After this victory, Gen. Harrison embarked his army 
on board of the x\merican fleet, landed in Canada, and 
defeated the British army under Gen. Proctor, near the 
river Thames. In this battle Tecamseh., the celebrated 
Indian chief, in alliance with the British, was killed. 
This chieftain was one of the greatest of Indian war- 
riors, and was distinguished for his eloquence, dignity 
of manners, and nobleness of soul. During this year 
the British obtained some success on the ocean, the 
most important of which was the capture, by Capt. 
Broke, iri the Shannon, of the frigate Chesapeake, com- 
manded by Capt. Lawrence. This intrepid officer, be- 
ing mortally wounded, was carried below, and became 
delirious, from excess of mental and bodily suffering. 
Whenever he was able to speak, he would exclaim 
" Don't give up the ship,''' — an expression long to be re- 
membered by his countrymen. 

373. The war in IQX A. This year was distinguished 
by severe fighting in Canada. In July, the Americans, 
under Gen. Brown, crossed the Niagara, with 3000 
men. and took possessitm of Fort Erie. A bloody ac- 
tion took place a few days after, at Chippewa, in which 
the Americans were victorious. In the same month, 
the American forces, under Generals Brown and Scott, 
and the British under Generals Drummond and Riall, 
fought a severe battle at Bridgewatcr. This battle be- 
gan before sunset and continued till midnight. The 

ican frigate did the British take in ISIS] What were the 
dyiii'i words of Capt. Lawrence \ 

373. Who took fort Erie, and gained the victory at Chip- 
p 'wa \ What commanders fought at the battle of Bridge- 



256 MODERN HISTORY. 

action was fought near the cataract of Niagara, whose 
roar was silenced at times, by the thunder of cannon 
and the rattling of arms. Ttie British were forced to 
leave the held, with the loss of about 900 in killed and 
wounded. The Americans were so much weakened 
that they fell back to Fort Erie, which the British after- 
wards attempted to storm, but were repulsed wlih great 
loss. 

In September, Sir George Provost, with 14,000 men, 
advanced on Plattshurgh. The operations of this army 
were accompanied by a British fleet, on Lake Cham- 
plain, carrying 95 guns, and 1050 men, under Commo- 
dore Downie. This fleet was defeated by Commodore 
Macdonough, whose fleet carried 86 guns, and 826 men. 
Upon the loss of the British fleet. Sir George Provost, 
after having been repulsed by Gen. Macomb, retreated. 

In August, a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake, 
and landed an army of 5000 men, about 40 miles from 
Washington. Having defeated the militia at Bladens- 
burg, they entered Washington, burnt the public build- 
ings, and then retreated to their shipping. About a fort- 
night afterwards, nearly 7000 men, under Gen. Ross, 
and Admiral Cockburn, made an attack on Baltimore, hw\ 
were defeated, and Gen. Ross was killed. 

374. Battle of New Orleans. While negotiations for 
peace were in progress between the United States and 
Great Britain, a large force, under Sir Edward Pack- 
enham, landed for the attack of New Orleans. The de- 
fense of this place was intrusted to Gen. Jackson, whose 
force was about 6000 men, chiefly raw militia. On the 
morning of the 8th of January, 1815, the main body of 
the enemy, 7 or 8000 in number, marched to the assault 
of the American lines. The Americans, in security be- 

waier? Give an account of this battle. Who advanced on 
Plattshurgh \ W^ho captured the British fleet on lake Cham- 
plain ? What was the British loss in this expedition? What 
is said of the burning of Washington, and the attack on Bal- 
tinjore '\ 

374. Who commanded the expedition against New Orleans, 
and by whom was it defended ? Give an account of the battle 
of the 8th of January. What was the loss of the British and 



MODERN HISTORY. 257 

hind their breast-works of cotton hales and other mate- 
rials, which no balls could penetrate, were formed in 
two ranks, those in the rear loading for those in front. 
By this they were enabled to fire without intermission 
As the British approached sufficiently near for shot to 
take effect, the rolling fire from the American lines re- 
sembled peals of thunder, and the plain before them was 
strewed with the dead and dying. After three brave 
attempts to force the American lines, in which Gen. 
Packenham and Gen. Gibbs, the second in command, 
were mortally wounded, the British troops retreated 
from the field of action. Their loss in killed, wounded, 
and captured, was 2600, while that of the Americans 
amounted to only six killed, and seven wounded. 

Soon after this event, news arrived that a treaty of 
peace had been signed at Ghent, by the commissioners 
of the United States and Great Britain, on the 25th of 
December, 1814. This treaty was immediately ratified 
by the President and Senate. 

375. Revolution in Spanish America. The jealous 
policy of Spain, with regard to her American colonies, 
led her, as much as possible, to cut off all intercourse 
between them and the rest of the world. Consequently, 
they were behind other civilized countries in the know- 
ledge and improvements of the age. About the period 
of the usurpation of the throne of Spain by the Bona- 
parte family, the Spanish colonies began to take meas- 
ures to assert their independence. In ISIO, Venezuela 
declared herself independent. The fatal earthquake of 
1812, which nearly destroyed the city of Caraccas, so 
operated on the ignorance and superstition of the peo- 
ple, that they again submitted to royal authority. The 
earitiquake was represented by the priests of that coun- 

Americans ] Where vi^as the treaty of peace signed, and at 
what time ? 

375. What was the policy of Spain with regard to her colo- 
nies ; What was the effect 1 At what period did the Spanish 
colonies lake measures for their independence 1 In what year 
did Venezuela declare herself independent ] What effect did 
the earthquake at Caraccas have 1 By whom was Venezuela 
22* 



258 MODERN HISTORY. 

try, who were hostile to liberty, as a token of the wrath 
of heaven, for daring to change their government. 

Venezuela remained thus subject to Spain till 1813, 
when it was again emancipated by Simon Bolivar^ who 
defeated the Spanish forces, and expelled them from 
his country. The revolution has extended to the Span- 
ish provinces of Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Buenos Ayres, 
and Chili, all of whom have thrown off the yoke o. 
Spain, and established republican governments. Most 
of these governments, however, are republican only in 
name: they have been torn by domestic factions, and still 
appear to be in an unsettled state. Religion and public 
morals in the South American republics, are generally 
in a low state ; and wherever these great sources ol 
public and private happiness and prosperity are wanting, 
the blessings of civil and religious liberty cannot exist. 

376. Of Hayti. The island of Hispaniola, or St. 
Domingo, is distinguished for being the place where the 
first European settlement was made, and the seat of the 
first independent empire, founded by the descendants of 
African slaves. It is now called Hayti, which is the 
ancient name given it by the natives. About the middle 
of the 17th century, a French colony was established 
on the west end of the island, and, before the revolu- 
tion, its products were valuable, and its commerce was 
in a flourishing state. In 1792, the national assembly 
of France proclaimed the freedom of all French sub- 
jects, and the numerous African slaves in the French 
colony in St. Domingo were emancipated. iMany of 
the planters were dissatisfied. They contended that 
the government had no right to grant freedom to their 
slaves, and therefore resisted the decrees of the national 
assembly, and appeared determined to retain the system 

again emancipated ? What other provinces established their 
independence ? What is said of the state of these republics, 
their religion and public morals? 

376. What is the island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, distin- 
guished for \ In what year was the freedom of all French sub- 
jects proclaimed ? What was done by the planters ? What is 
said of the contentions between the whites and blacks'? 



MODERN HISTORY. 259 

I ilavery in the island. This the blacks resisted In 
tK contentions which followed, both the whites and 
bio cks were guilty of the most horrid atrocities upon 
ea*.h other, till, at last, all the French were either mas- 
sacred or driven from the island. 

i>ll. Of Touissant UOuverture. In the confusion 
attendant on a state of revolution, the British govern- 
metit sent a body of troops to Hayti, in order to bring 
it under its own power. They landed and took posses- 
sioii of a number of places, from most of which they 
were driven by the celebrated Touissant UOuverture, 
a man of color, whom the French national government 
haci appointed commander-in-chief of the troops in the 
island. The British troops, after an enormous loss of 
men by disease and the sword, evacuated the island in 
\l\i3. On the 1st of July, 1801, the independence of 
Hayti was proclaimed, and Touissant being placed at 
the head of the government, the island rapidly improved 
in ^vealth and prosperity under his wise administration. 

\n the latter part of 1801, Bonaparte, then first con- 
sul, dispatched an army of 25,000 men, under Gen. Le 
Clerc, to subdue the Haytians to their former state of 
slavery. After a campaign fought with varied success, 
a tnice was concluded between the contending parties. 
Taking advantage of this, the French, with unexampled 
perhdy, seized upon the person of Touissant, and con- 
veyed him to France, where he perished in a dungeon, 
in 1803. History records but few examples of military 
chieftains who will bear comparison with Touissant 
L'Ouverture, for greatness of mind, virtue, patriotism, 
and nobleness of soul. 

378. Progress of the Revolution in Hayti. The out- 
rage committed by the French upon Touissant, caused 
a renewal of the war, with greater animosity than ever. 



377. What is said of theUritish invasion of Hayti, and of 
Touissant L'Ouverture ? When was the independence of 
Hayti proclaimed 1 What general, and how ihany men, did 
Bonaparte send to subdue Hayti? Of what act of perfidy 
were the French guilty ? What is said of the character of 
L'Ouverture] 



260 MODERN HISTORY. 

The Haytians, under Dessalines, prosecuted the war 
with vigor and success. 'J'he yellow fever also swept 
off great numbers of the French troops, who were finally 
compelled to abandon the island in 1 803. The next 
year Dessalines was appointed governor for life, with 
very extensive powers ; and soon after he assumed the 
imperial title of Jacques I., emperor of Hayti. His 
ambition and tyranny were such, that he was killed in 
a conspiracy in 1806. Christophe, his second in com- 
mand, them assumed the government ; Petion, however, 
another chieftain, disputed his sovereignty. A long 
struggle ensued, in which Petion was defeated. In 
1811, Christophe assumed the title of King Henry I. 
Petion retired to the southern part of the island ; a re- 
public was formed here, and Petion appointed president 
for life. He died, greatly regretted, in 1818. Chris- 
tophe, who appears to have been an avaricious and 
cruel despot, was killed by his soldiers in 1820. After 
this event, the whole of the French part of Hayti was 
united under President Boyer, who is said to possess 
many virtues. In 1825, the French succeeded in in- 
ducing the Haytian government to agree to pay about 
jCo, 000,000 sterling, payable by installments, as a com- 
pensation for the plantations on the Island, formerly 
owned by the French inhabitants. ...^.-r-...iv President 
Boyer aas >i»^^" compelled to leave Hayti, by a revolu- 
tion in the government, the effect of which remains to 
be seen. 

379. Of Brazil and Portugal. At the time of the 
French invasion of Portugal, in 1807, the royal family 
removed the seat of government to Brazil. Here they 
remained till 1820, when they returned to Portugal, ex- 
cepting Pedro, the king's eldest son, who was lel'i be- 
hind as regent. In 1823, Brazil was declared an inde- 
pendent empire under Pedro, who took the title of 



378. In what year did the French abandon the island 1 
What is said of Dessalines ? Of Christophe ^ Of Petion ' Of 
President Boyer \ What sum did the Haytians agree to pay 
the French, as a compensation 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 261 

emperor, and was acknowledged as such by Portugal 
In 1826, the king of Portugal died. Pedro, who laid a 
claim to the throne, resigned it in favor of his daughter, 
Maria de Gloria. Her right to the throne was con- 
tested by Don Mi^^uel, (brother of Don Pedro,) who 
was aided by the nobility and the monks. Donna Ma- 
ria was favored by the constitutionalists and patriots. 
In 1831, Don Pedro abdicated the crown of Brazil in 
favor of his infant son, Don Pedro II., and embarked 
with his daughter for Portugal. 6he has since been 
established upon the throne of that country. 

380. Revolution in Greece. The modern Greeks, by 
a long course of degradation and slavery inflicted upon 
them by their Turkish masters, have generally, for a 
long period, been an ignorant and vicious people ; they, 
however, bore the yoke of their oppressors with reluc- 
tance. Individuals among the Greeks, receiving an 
education in various countries in Europe, were awak- 
ened to a sense of their national degradation ; and by 
their exertions, the Greeks were induced to enter on a 
struggle for liberty. It appears that the Greek leaders 
expected assistance from Russia ; but, being disap- 
pointed, they resolved to rely on themselves and the 
justice of their cause. In 1820, war commenced be- 
tween the Turks and the Pacha of Albania. This 
being considered a favorable opportunity, Ypsdanti, a 
Greek officer, who had been in the service of Russia, 
succeeded in rousing his countrymen to arms, and drove 
the Turks from the greater part of their country. The 
Turkish government, in order to strike terror into the 
Greeks, caused the Greek patriarch of Constantinople, 
who was venerated for his character, to be hung in his 
robes before his own cathedral. This atrocity, how- 

379 In what year was the seat of government removed 
from Portugal to Brazil 1 When was Brazil declared inde- 
pendent \ What is said of Don Pedro, Don Miguel, and Don- 
na Maria? 

3H0. What is said of the modern Greeks ' How were they 
induced to enter into a struggle for liberty'? What is said 
of Ypsilanti ? What did the Turkis h government do 1 



262 MODERN HISTORY. 

ever, instead of producing the intended effect, urged on 
the Greeks to acts of dreadful revenge. 

381. Massacre at Scio. The island of ^SaV?, contain- 
ing about 130,000 inhabitants, having enjoyed many 
peculiar privileges, had arrived to a considerable de- 
gree of refinement and knowledge. In 1 822, the Greeks 
from some of the other islands, landed in Scio, and in- 
duced the peasantry to join them against the Turks 
They marched to the city, and drove the Turks into the 
castle. The Turkish fleet, lately reinforced from 
Egypt, being in the neighboring seas, on learning these 
events, landed 15,000 men in Scio. These troops im- 
mediately entered the city, and began the massacre of 
men, women, and children, of whom 25,000 were mur- 
dered. The city was fired, and in four days the fire and 
sword of the Turks rendered the beautiful island of Scio 
a scene of blood and ashes. Of the whole population, 
not more than 1000 remained alive on the island. Up- 
wards of 40,000 Sciots, mostly women and children, 
were sold into slavery. The inhuman Capudan Pacha^ 
the Turkish commander, after this, while preparing to 
desolate other Greek islands, met with summary ven- 
geance. The Ipsariots, with 70 small vessels and^re- 
ships, hovered round the Turkish fleet, and in the night 
rowed among them and attached their fire-ships to Cap- 
udan Pacha's vessel, which blew up with upwards of 
2,200 men, and mortally wounded the Pacha. 

382. Progress of the War. In 1822, an army -of 
25,000 Turks passed the celebrated straits of Ther- 
mopylae, in order to lay waste the Morea, or Grecian pe- 
ninsula. The Greek commanders afterwards occupied 
these straits, and cut off' the communication and sup 
plies of the Turkish army, who, in a desperate effort to 
break through the Greek defenses, in the night, were 
mostly destroyed. Many persons now took a deep in 

381. What is said of the island of Scio ? How many did 
the Turks land in Scio, and what did they do ? How many 
remained on the island] What became of the Capudan 
Pacha I 



MODERN HISTORY 263 

terest in the. affairs of the Greeks, among whom was 
Lord Byron, the celebrated British poet. He pro- 
ceeded to Greece, and made considerable sacrifices in 
her cause : he, however, died soon after at Missilunghi, 
in April, 1824. The Turkish armies made but little 
progress in Greece till Ibrahim Pacha, of Egypt, was 
sent by the Sultan to manage the war. In 1825, he 
opened the campaign with energy, and ravaged the 
Morea. The Greeks, under the brave Admiral Miaulis 
and Kanaris, with their fire-ships, performed many gal- 
lant actions, and greatly harassed their enemies. 

3fe3. Battle of Navarino. In July, 1827, the minis- 
ters of Great Britain, France, and Russia, by a treaty 
at London, settled the affairs of Greece, and gave notice 
to the Turkish government, that " Greece must there- 
after govern herself." The Turks rejected the inter- 
ference of the three powers, and Ibrahim, with the 
Turkish-Egyptian fleet, entered the bay of Navarino, m 
September. Soon after, the combined squadrons of 
British, French, and Russian ships, arrived, and in- 
formed Ibrahim Pacha of their determination to estab- 
lish an armistice between the Turks and Greeks. Ibra- 
him being prevented from sailing from Navarino, com- 
menced his ravages by burning houses, and killing wo- 
men and children. In consequence of this the com- 
bined fleet entered the harbor of Navarino, to compel 
Ibrahim to desist from these brutal outrages. The Turk- 
ish force, consisting of 110 ships, were found drawn 
up in order of battle, and as the allied fleet approached, 
a deadly conflict ensued. The Turks fought with des- 
peration, till their whole fleet was burnt, sunk, or disa- 
bled. Hostilities now ceased, and the sultan soon After 
agreed to the treaty of London. A monarchial gov- 

382. How many Turks passed the straits of Thermopylae, 
and what became of them I What is said of Lord Byron ? 
What of Ibrahim Pacha ] What of Miaulis and Kanaris ? 

383. What three powers, by a treaty at London, settled the 
affairs of Greece ] What notice did they give to the Turkish 
government 1 What did the combined squadrons do ] What 
is said of t-fae battle 1 What of the government of Greece 1 



264 MODERN HISTORY. 

ernment is now established for the Greeks ; also the 
religion of the ancient Greek church. Schools are en- 
couraged, and commerce and agriculture begin to revive. 

384. French Revolution of 1830. The immediate 
cause of the revolution in Paris, in July, 1830, was the 
attempt of the ministers of Charles X., to enforce a 
number of ordinances, or acts, signed by the king, in 
violation of the charter confirmed to the French people, 
after the downfall of Napoleon. The most odious of 
these ordinances, was against the liberty of the press, 
so that nothing could be printed without being inspected 
and authorized by the government. One of the ordi- 
nances interfered with the law of election, and another 
illegally dissolved the chamber of deputies, or repre- 
sentatives of the people. As the journalists were the 
first called upon to obey these ordinances, they assem- 
bled and drew up, in great haste, an address to their 
countrymen, which displayed a noble example of cour- 
age and patriotism, and as the ordinances were contrary 
to the charter, they expressed their determination to dis- 
obey them. Such was the alarm excited by these pro- 
ceedings, that the bankers suspended discounts ; many 
of the manufacturers discharged their workmen crowds 
assembled in various parts, and were addressed by fear- 
less orators, and their speeches were received with 
clapping of hands, and cries of " down with the minis- 
ters," — " the charter forever." 

385. Progress of the Revolution. The revolution in 
France, in 1830, has been often termed the " revolution 
of three days," from the circumstance of its being ac- 
complished in that time. On the morning of July 27, 
many of the public journals appeared in opposition to 
the ordinances. The ofllices of those journals which 
dared to appear were broken into, and their presses 
seized by an armed police. The crowds in the streets 



384 What was the immediate cause of the revolution in 
Paris'? Which was the most odious of these ordinances'? 
Who were first called upon to obey, and what did they do % 
What was the effect of these proceedings 1 



MODERN HISTOllY 265 

uicreased, and the military, in attempting to clear them, 
•vere assailed by stones and other missiles, thrown from 




Conflict in the streets of Paris, 1830. 

the houses. During the evening of this day the peo- 
ple armed themselves, and many of the streets were 
barricaded with timbers, stones, &c., to arrest the course 
of the cavalry. July 28th. On the morning of this day 
the whole population of Paris were in motion, and there 
was regular fighting in all quarters of the city during 
the day, between the king's troops and the armed citi- 
zens ; the barricades were increased, and Paris was 
put into a state of defense. July 29th. At break of day, 
the whole population were in arms. Some of the ad- 
herents of Charles X. entreated Polignac, his principal 
minister, to resign his office, and the king to repeal his 
ordinances. Polignac refused to listen to any propo- 
sition, and the struggle continued. For two days the 
people were seen fighting without a chief but on this 
day two generals, Dubourg and Gerard, put themselves 
at their head. A desperate conflict was maintained by 

385. What is the French revolution of 1830 often called? 
What was done on July 27th, what on the 28th, and what on 
the 29th 1 

23 



266 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Swiss guards, and other troops of the king, at the 
Thuilleries and Louvre, but before the day had closed 
the people were in possession of all parts of Paris. 
Thus ended this memorable conflict of three days^ in 
which more than 2000 were killed, and 5000 wounded. 

386. Accession of Louis Philippe to the Throne. On 
the 30th of July, a great number of the French deputies 
assembled at their usual place of meeting and tempora- 
rily tilled the offices of state. The venerable G^n. 
Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
National Guards, and Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. 
was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom 
Charles X., being deserted by the greater part of the 
army and ministers, abdicated the throne, and was suf- 
fered to depart, with his family, to England. The 
throne of France being declared vacant by the chamber 
of deputies, the duke of Orleans was, by a vole of that 
body, invited to become king of the French. He ac- 
cepted the crown, under the title of Louis Philippe L, 
and took the oath to support the new charter. The 
rights of the French people now became better defined ; 
hereditary nobility was abolished, and many new privi- 
leges granted to the people. 

387. Revolution in Belgium. The French revolution 
of 1830 was immediately followed by that of Belgium, 
The Belgic people were principally Catholics, and were 
French in their language, intercourse, and feelings. 
They had been united to Holland without their consent, 
by the congress of Vienna, in 1814. The Dutch were 
mostly Protestants, and no cordial union existed between 
them and the Belgians. An insurrection broke out in 
Brussels, in August, and on the 4th of October, 1830, the 
Belgians made a formal declaration of their indepen- 
dence. In 1831, the Belgium congress elected Leopold^ 
prince of Saxe Cobourg, and son-in-law of George IV., 

386. What body met on the 30th of July, and what did they 
do 1 What is said of Charles X. 1 Who was invited to be- 
come king of the French "? What is said of the rights granted 
to the people ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 2G7 

of England, as their king, which choice has teen sanc- 
tioned by the leading powers of Eu:Oj)e. Leopold is 
now united in marriage with the daughter of Louis 
Philippe, king of the I'rench, arid his kingdom may be 
considered as lirmly estaldislied. 

388. Revuiatiuii in Poland From the infamous par- 
tition of the Polish kingdom, in 179.3, by Rufsia, Austria, 
and Prussia, to the revolution of 1830, the spirit of 
Poland had never been entirely crushed, and many of her 
patriots lived m the hope, that their country would be 
restored to the rank of an independent nation. They 
expected much from Napoleon, and many of her patri- 
ots shed their blood in his service, but shed it in vain. 
The success of the revolutions in France and Belgium, 
inspired the Polish patriots with the hope, that the time 
for the deliverance ot their country was come. On 
the 29th of November, 1830, a young Polish officer en- 
tered the military school at Warsaw, and called the 
cadets to arms. The cadets instantly took up their line 
of march, and being joined by the students of the uni- 
versity, proceeded to the residence of the Arch-Duke 
Constantine, the viceroy of Poland. This tyrant of the 
Polish people, however, escaped by a private passage. 
The insurrection immediately became general ; 40,000 
Polish troops and citizens, having seized the public 
arsenal, armed themselves, and expelled the Russian 
troops from VVarsaw. A Polish d.et, or assembly, was 
immediately convened, and independence declared. 

389. Progress of the Revolution. The Emperor 
Nicholas, having denounced the Poles as rebels, sent 
an army of 200,000 men against Poland, which could 
raise but about 50,000. On the 25th of February, 
1831, the Russians, 150,000 in number, under Count 
Diebitsch, advar»ced upon VVarsaw. The Poles, under 

387. What is said of the Belgic people 1 At what time did 
they declare their independence ] W ho did they elect as their 
king 1 To whom is he married i 

388. What is said of Poland since 1795 1 What effect did 
the revolutions in France and Belgium havel At what time, 
and how did the revolution commence 1 State what was don^^ 



268 MODERN HISTORY. 

the command of Skrzynccki and other generals, were 
but 40,000 in number ; but they fought with such fury, 
that the Russians were driven back, with the loss of 
15,000 in killed and wounded. The Poles displayed 
great bravery in many actions, but every victory weak- 
ened their strength. On the 6th of September, 1831 
a Russian army of 100,000 men, with 300 pieces o 
cannon under the command of Field Marshal Paske 
witsch, advanced to storm Warsaw. After two days 
hard fighting, in which 20,000 Russians were killed and 
wounded, Warsaw was taken, her brave defenders im 
prisoned, or exiled to Siberia, and Poland was incorpo- 
rated into the Russian empire. 

390. Of India. The great and populous country 
known by the name of India, has thus far made but little 
figure in history. Like most other Asiatic countries, it 
has been often and easily conquered, without effecting 
much change in its government, or in the manners and 
customs of the people. Herodotus, who lived about a 
century before Alexander the Great, gives the earliest 
account of the inhabitants of India. The character 
which he gives of the people, is said to be exactly the 
same as that of the Hindoos at the present day. The 
Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1000, had begun to 
establish an empire in India. In 1222, Genghis Khan 
conquered the country, and is said to have given the 
the name Mogul to India. A century afterwards Tam- 
erlane took possession, and allowed the petty princes, 
Rajahs or Nabobs, to retain their territories, of which 
some of their descendants are now in possession. In 
1738, KouH Khan, after having usurped the Persian 
throne, overran a great part of the Mogul empire, and 

389. What was done by the Emperor Nicholas? What is 
said of the battle of Count Diebitsch and Skrzynecki'? What 
is said of the storming of Warsaw, and what ot Poland 1 

390. What is said of India, and of the ac-ount of its inliabi- 
tants by Herodotus 1 At whattinrje did the Mahometans bejiin 
to establish an empire in India? What is said of Genghis 
Khan, Tamerlane, and Kouli Khan ? How were the Euro- 
peans able to extend their influence 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 269 

weakened the power of Tamerlane's descendants. The 
frequent wars between the petty princes of India, led 
them to seek the aid of Europeans to conquer each 
other. By this means the Europeans were able to 
maintain and extend their settlements and influence in 
India. 

391. British East India Company. In 1600, Queen 
Elizabeth gave to the merchants of London an exclusive 
right to the commerce of India for 15 years. This ap- 
pears to have been the origin of the East India Com- 
pany, which was established by an act of parliament, in 
1708. The local affairs of the company were entrusted 
to the three councils of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, 
while the general direction was retained in England. 
The political power of the British in India may be said 
to have commenced in 1748. As the European troops 
were but few in number, the company adopted the plan 
of disciplining the native Indian troops, called Seapoys, 
according to the European method. By this means the 
company were able to have a large and efficient military 
force at command. By the naval superiority of the 
mother country, the establishments of other European 
countries were broken up, and the British are now the 
ruling nation in India. The company having become 
powerful, have been in many instances arbitrary and 
tyrannical in their conduct towards the natives. The 
whole number of Europeans residing in India does not 
probably exceed 40 or 50,000 ; but such is their influ- 
ence over the inhabitants of India, they are able to sus- 
tain a dominion over an hundred millions of people. 

392. Of China. China is one of the most ancient 
empires in the world, and is noted for its pride of an- 
tiquity. Their records extend back to upwards of 2000 
years before the Christian era, and it is supposed by 
some, that the empire was founded by one of the colo- 

391. What was the origin of the East India Conripany, and 
when was it established 1 Bv what means did the East India 
Company become powerful 1 What is said of their conduct 
towards the natives! How many Europeans are there in 
India, and how many people over whom they hold dominion ] 
23* 



270 MODERN HISTORY, 

nies formed at the dispersion of Noah's posterity. The 
Chinese differ from all otlier people in their governm nt, 
manners, customs and relia^ion, and while every other 
nation and j)eople have chanoj'ed, they have existed, a 
great and flourishinir nation, remaining nearlv i'l the 
same state four thousand years. The Chinese having 
suffered much from the inroad^ of the northern Tartars, 
built a wall upwards of 1200 miles in Innirib from east 
to west ; this astonishinu^ work is still in existence. 
This wall secured the peace of China for several cen- 
turies; but the Tartars, after repeated assaidis, suc- 
ceeded in breaking over the wall, and in subduing the 
empire, in 1635, and a Tartar dynasty is now on the 
til rone. 

China was first visited bv the PortugUf^se, in their 
voyages of discovery in the Indian ocean, in 1586, when 
they obtained a grant of the Island of Macao, at the en- 
trance of the harbor of Canton. Since that period va- 
rious nat'ons have carried on commeice with China, by 
the way of the Cape of Good Hope. In Augusr, 1841, 
commercial <lifficulties having arisen with the Chinese, 
a British force took possession of the fortress of Amoy, 
an(J afterwards forced the Chinese g •vernment to con- 
sent to a treaty, by which tiie island of Hong K mi^ was 
ceded to the British Crown and several important ports 
opened to commerce. In 1851, a f)rmidable insurrection 
broke oui under a leader ran)ed Tien-ieky who a])pears 
to have obtained some knowledijje of the principles of 
Christianity. He announied him-elf as the second son 
of God, a restorer ot the true worship, and demanded 
universal su(/missi)n. At first the insurgents were very 
successful, but of late most of the places taken bv them 
have beeti recaptured, but the couiury >till remains un- 
settled. 

.392. What is said respectinj^ the ancient history of China? 
For what purpose tli I they bui'd a w,ill, anl what, was its 
length? VVhiit is s lid of ihe l\rtars? Wiien w is < 'liina vis- 
it.-<l by the Portuguese? At whit tine did the inMirrectiua 
break out? tTuJer what leader, and what is said of him ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 27 1 

393. Cdndition of France in 1847. After Louis 
Philippe ascended the throne, the government was con- 
ducted with ability, and the state of France, in many of 
its interests, appeared rauch improved. The French 
monarch, however, made himself unpopular with his 
subjects on account of his restraining the liberty of the 
press, laying heavy taxes, &c. This, with the neglect of 
his poorer subjects, his disposidon to aggrandize his 
family, and the restriction of the right of suffrage, or 
voting, to the higher classes, caused much dissatisfaction. 
During a commercial derangement in 1847, the French 
people began to h(>ld reform banquets for the purpose of 
discussing the subject of their grievances. These meet- 
ings were numerously attended. A banquet was ap- 
pointed to be held in Paris on February 20th, 1848, 
which was prohibited by the authorities as a seditious 
meeting. The people deeming this illegal, postponed 
the banquet till February 22d. 

394. French Revolution o/" 1848. On the day ap- 
pointed, vast crowds of citizens assembled in the streets 
of Paris. They soon found themselves engaged with a 
military force of eighty thousand men which had been 
ordered into the city. The people took arms from shops 
and houses, raised barricades, attacked the Chamber of 
Deputies and the residence of Guizot, the Prime Minis- 
ter. The insurrection became so general that the Na- 
tional Guard refused to fire on the people. Louis Phil- 
ippe being defeated, abdi -ated in favor of his young 
grandson, the Count of Paris, and then fled in disguise 
to England. Lamartine, one of the principal leaders of 
the people, now proclaimed " The French Republic^ Lib- 
erty, Equ lity and Fraternityy A provisional govern- 
ment was organized, every citizen was made an elector, 
and all slaves on French territory were declared free. 

393. What male Louis Philippe unpopular with his sub- 
jects? What is said of Reform Banquets? 

394. How did the French citizens accomplish the revolution 
of 1848? What became of Louis Philippe 2 What was the 
fAsuit of the revolution! 



272 MODERN HISTORY. 

395. Louis Napoleon, President and Umperor. In 
December, 1848, Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the 
great Napoleon, having received five millions out of 
seven millions of votes, was elected President. His 
most important act while in this office, was the suppres- 
sion, in 1849, of the Italian Republic at Rome, by mili- 
tary force. In 1851, as his term of office drew near its 
close, Louis Napoleon endeavored to have the clause of 
the Constitution which forbid his re-election repealed. 
Faihng in this, he dissolved the Assembly, imprisoned 
some of its members, and suppressed the newspapers 
opposed to his views. He then called upon the French 
people to vote by universal suffrage, yes or no, on the 
question whether he should be President for ten years, 
with dictatorial powers. The people, by an immense 
majority, decided in his favor. In Nov., 1852, the Sen- 
ate, in compliance with the will of the President, by 
a vote of 86 out of 87, adopted a measure to re-establish 
an imperial government. This was adopted by the peo- 
ple by a vote of 7,864,189 out of 8,180,660. Accord- 
ingly Louis Napoleon was declared " Emperor of the 
French," under the title of Napoleon III., and the he- 
reditary title secured in his family. 

396. The Roman Republic. The success of the French 
revolution of 1848 emboldened the people of several 
European states to make efforts for their more perfect 
freedom. A strong party '*n the Italian states endeav- 
ored to secure union, and constitutional freedom. In 
Rome, the revolution was begun by the murder of Count 
Rossi, an able, but tyrannical minister. A general insur- 
rection now broke out. The mob proceeded to the 
Pope's palace,, attacked his guards, and would have takeo 

395. Who was Louis Napoleon ? How did he become Presi- 
dent? What did he while in this office ? How came he to be 
Emperor ? 

396. How did the modern Roman Republic originate? What 
became of the Pope? Who were the Italian leaders? How 
wa^ the Republic overthrown \ 



MODERN HISTORY. 



273 



the edifice, had he not yielded and granted a popular 
ministry. He, liowever, soon fled to Naples in disguise. 
A '^ Roman Republic''' was now formed, and Jo^eph 
Mazzini placed at its head. Louis Napoleon, contrary 
to his professed principles, sent "an army to Rome, and 
attacked the city soldiery under Gen. Garibaldi. After 
a brave resistance, the French entered the city, (July 3d, 
1848,) put down resistance and caused the Pope to be 
reinstated in his authority. 

397. Hungarian Revolution. [ Hungary, a large coun- 
try in the Austrian Empire, had for a long period a Diet, 
or government of its own. When the French Revolution 
of 1848 occurred, Kossuth, an active leader of the Ma- 
gyars, or Hungarians, headed a deputation to Vienna to 
obtain a guarantee against the violation of their rights. 
He was able to obtain a new ministry for Hungary, of 
which Count Batlhyanzi and himself were constituted 
chief members. They immediately commenced the 
W(»rk of reform by eman<^'ipating the peasantry and ex- 
tending the right of suffrage. This displeased the Aus- 
trian government, and they instigated the Croats, a 
neighboring people, to invade Hungary. Gorgvy being 
entrusted with the command of the troops, with great 
valor drove the Croats l^ack. On April 14th, 1848, the 
National Assembly of Hungary issued a Declaration of 
Independence. 

398. Subjugation of the Hungarians. The Austrian 
government fearing the final success of the Hungarians, 
applied to the Russians for aid. Nicholas, the Czar of 
Russia, willingly lent his aid. He accordingly sent 
Piince Paskiewitz with an army of 130,000 men across 
his frcn ier into Hungary. At this period some elements 
of discord began to appear among the Hungarians, and 

397. Where is Huigary? What ib said of Kossuth? Of 
the Croats ? Of Gorges ? Of the National A^sembly ? t^'^ 

398. What is sail! of the Austrian goverumf^nt ? Of Nicho- 
las the Czar of Russi. ? What of the Hungarians and Gorgey ? 
What became of Kossuth and th« Hungarian officers? 



274 MODERN HISTORY. 

even Oorgey, their principal commander, was suspected 
of treachery. The Magyars everywhere made a brave 
defen>e, but they were overwhelmed by the ccinibined 
forces of Austria and Russia. Ki>morn, the ]>rincipal 
fortress, surrendered Sept. 17th, 1849. Kos^uth and 
some of his officers escaped into Turkey, where the Sul- 
tan generously gave them pioteciion. The Austrian 
commander, Baron Haynau, infamous for his cruelty, 
executed thirteen Huniiarian Generals and staff officers. 
The noble Kossuth finally reached Great Britain and the 
United States, where he was received with enthusiasm 
for his brave though unsucccv'-sful sirui^gle for the free 
dom of his country. 

399. Origin of the Crimean War. This war origi- 
nated from the jealously of Great Britain, France, and 
some other European powers against the encroachments 
of Russia. This formidable power, for a long period, 
had been very desirous of additig Turkey to her already 
vast extent of country. Should this be effected, it was 
feared it would destroy the balance of power among 
European governments. In May, 1853, Russia demand- 
ed the perpetual protectorate of twelve millions of Greek 
Christians in the limits of the Sultan's dominions. As 
this comprised nearly one half of his subjec^ts, it was re- 
jected with great spiiit. Great Britain, France, Austria, 
and Prussia approved the stand taken by Turkev. Rus- 
sia to enforct' her claims took possession of the provinces 
of Moldavia and Wallachia; in consequence of which, 
Turkey declared war against Russia. 

400. Allied movements against Mvssia. The allied 
fleets of Great Britain and France, upon the Sultan's 
declaration of war, entered the DtrdMuelles. Afier the 
Russians had destroyed the Turkish fleet lying in the 
harbor of Sinope, the allied fleet entered the Blark Sea 



399. How did the Crimean war originnte? What did Russia 
demand of the Turkish governmeut ? How was the demand 
received? 



mod:ern history. 



275 



while that of the Russians retired to the harbor of Se- 
bastopol, at the southern extremity of the peninsula of 
Crimea. In Feb., 1854, France and Great Britain dis- 
patched an ultimatum to Russia, that she should within 
six days after it was received, pledge herself that she 
would evacuate the Turkish provinces before the 1st of 
April. If she declined to do this, they would consider 
it equivalent to a declaration of war. The Russian court 
making no answer, war was formally declared. After 
several conflicts, the combined fleet, consisting of nearly 
four hundred vessels, arrived at the Crimea, and landed 
about thirty miles north of Sebastopol, a force of 60,000 
men, consisting of 27,000 British, 25,000 French, and 
8,000 Turks. 

401. Battles of the Crimea. The first important con- 
flict between the allies and the Russians, was on the 
banks of the Alma, where a Russian force of about 
45,000 men were strongly entrenched. The British, 
26,000 strong, under Lord Raglan, and the French under 
Marshal St. Arnaud, boldly advanced up the heights 
under a tremendous fire; the Russians were driven from 
their position utterly routed, with the loss of between 
four and five thousand men. The Battle of Balaklava, 
(Oct. 25th, 1854,) was commenced by 20,000 Russian 
iiifantry, supported by masses of cavalry, against the 
British troops. They captured the Turkish redoubts, 
but were defeated by the Highlanders. The most dar- 
ing exploit of the war was the charge made by the 
famous "six hundred" British light cavalry, who rode 
through the Russian ranks and returned after losing two- 
thirds of their number. The Battle of Inkerman, (Nov. 
5th,) between the allies and Russians, in which the 
latter endeavored to force them to raise the siege of 



400. Who allied themselves against Russia? Where were 
their fleets sent? What was the ultimatum sent to Russia? 
What followed? 

401. What was the firs^ important conflict on the^'Grimea? 
What is said of the battle of Balaklava and Inkerman ? 



276 MODERN HISTORY. 

Sebastopol, was a sanguinary conflict of eight hours, 
in which the Russians were defeated with the loss of 
nearly 15,000 men. 

402. Capture of the MalaJchoff — Fall of Sebastopol. 
After a siege of eleven months, it was arranged that on 
Sept. 8th, 1855, at 12 o'clock at noon, the French 
should attack the strong tower of the MaJakhofl", while 
at the same time the British should attack the Redan, 
another strong fortress near by. At the signal gun, the 
drums and trumpets sounded the charge ; thirty thou- 
sand Frenchmen headed by Zouaves, sprang from their 
trenches, — dashed like the waves of the sea against the 
defenses of the Malakhoff — swarmed up the steep em- 
bankments until they covered the whole parapet. Soon 
the French tri-color floated over the Malakhoff. Again 
and again, the Russians brought up reinforcements, but 
were driven back by the irresistible fury of the French. 
The contest and caruage was horrible ; men fought 
hand to hand, and dashed out each other's brains with 
their muskets. At last the Russian General, weary of 
the frightful slaughter of his men, sullenly withdrew. 

About eight in the evening of this eventful day, the 
Russians under cover of darkness withdrew from the 
town. After midnight, fires broke out in various parts 
of Sebastopol, the batteries were blown up, ships in the 
harbor were sunk, and in the morning the town was a 
mass of burning ruins. The contest was now decided; 
and in March, 1856, a treaty of peace was signed at 
Paris by the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, 
Austria, Sardinia, Turkey and Russia. 

403. Of Texas. This extensive tract was originally 
compiised in the limits of Mexico. In 1821, Moses 
Austin, of Connecticut, obtained permission from tl>e 



402. How long did the siege of Sebastopol continue? How 
•was the capture of the Malakhoff eifected? What is said of 
Sebastopol ? By whom was the treaty of peace signed ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 277 

Mexican authorities to iutroduce an American colony 
into Texas Mexico having abolished slavery within her 
limits, the American settlers being mostly southern 
planters, felt themselves so aggrieved that they establish- 
ed a provisional government, and declared on March 
2d, 1835, the independence of Texas. In 1836, Santa 
Anna, the President of Mexico, moved a large force for- 
ward, threatening to exterminate the Americans, or drive 
them from the country. At the Alamo, the garrison, 
consisting of about one hundred and seventy-five men, 
were all slain, among whom were Cols. Travis, David 
Crockett and Bowie. A few days afterwards, 330 of 
the American garrison at Goliad, under Colonel Fan- 
ning, were treacherously murdered in cold blood, after 
they had surrendered themselves as prisoners of Mar. 

Santa Anna having driven the Americans nearly out 
of Texas, came upon the American force near the San 
Jacinto, under Gen. Houston, now reduced to about 
800 men. Houston now resolved upon the desperate 
measure of attacking the Mexicans in their camp, 
although double in number to his own men. The 
charge was ordered ; and the war cry, Rem.emher the 
Alamo! was wildly shouted by Texans, who, with 
their double-barrelled guns, pistols and knives, rushed 
through and over the Mexican ranks with sucii terrible 
effect, that their whole force was either killed, wounded 
or taken prisoners ; among the latter was Santa Anna 
This secured the Independence of Texas. 

404. War with Mexico. Texas was received into the 
Union, by a joint resolution of Congress, Feb. 28th, 
1845. This caused an immediate rupture with Mexico. 
In consequence of her hostile movements, Gen. Taylor 
in July, was sent with several military companies to 

403. What is said of Texas, — of Moses Austin — and of the 
American settlers? Who was Santa Anna? What of the 
Alamo ? What is said of Gen. Houston and of the battle of 
San Jacinto? 

404. When was Texas received into the Union f What is 
said of Gen. Taylor and others f Of the battle of L uena Vista ? 



278 MODERN HISTORY. 

Corpus Christi Bay, near the Mexican border. He 
afervvards took a position on the Rio Grande, oppo- 
site Mataraoras. While niarching to this place, he was 
attacked by the Mexicans ; the battles of Palo Alto 
and Resaca de la Palma ensued, which proved victori- 
ous to the Americans. On Sept 21st, Gen. Taylor 
attacked Monterey, which soon surrendered. About 
the same time, divisions under Gens. Wool, Kearney, 
Fremont and others, penetrated New Mexico and,,(7a/i- 
fornia, and took possession of some of the principal 
towns. On Feb. 22d, 1847, Gen. Taylor grained a de- 
cisive victory at Buena s Vista, over the Mexican arm}' 
under Santa Anna. The American force in this bloody 
conflict, consisted only of about 5,000, while that of the 
Mexican consisted of 20,000 men. 

405. Operations of Gen. Scott. In Jan., 1847, Gen. 
Winfield Scott, who was appointed to the chief com- 
mand, reached Mexico, and commenced the investment 
of Vera Cruz, where was situated the strong Cnstle of 
San Juan d' UUoa. On March 29th. the city and Castle 
surrendered, with 5,000 prisoners and 500 cannon. At 
least I 000 Mexicans were killed, and a great number 
wounded. The American loss in killed and wounded 
was about 80 men. Gen. Scott now proceeded against 
the capital. At Cerro Gordo, he was met by Santa 
Anna, the President of the Mexican Republic, with a 
force of 12,000 men. The action took place at a difl[i- 
cult mountain-pass which was strongly fortified. With 
about 8,000 troops Gen. Scott attacked the Mexicans 
and drove them from their strong position, with a loss 
of 4,000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, while that of 
the Americans was but 431. Santa Anna narrowly 
escaped capture by fleeing on a mule taken from his car- 
riage. The strong Castle of Perote was next taken 
without opposition, as was Puehla, the second city of 
Mexico, with 80,000 inhabitants, May 15lh, 1847. 



405. When did Gen. Seott reach Mexico? What is eaid of 
Vera Cruz? Of Cerro Gordo and Puebla? 



MODERN HISTORY. 279 

406. Capture of Mexico, '^en. Scott remainei) in 
Puehia till Auij^ust, when beinj^^ reinforceJ, he advanced 
towanJs the capitHl at the head of 10,700 men The 
fbrtitied camp of Contreras, near the heights of Chere- 
baaco, was attacked, and after a sanguinary contest, the 
Americans were victorious, capturing 3.000 prisoners. 
Cherubusco was also taken after a heavy loss had been 
intiicted on the Mexicans. Sept. 8th, ahout 4,000 Ameri- 
cans attacked 14,000 Mexicans at £Jl Molinos del Rey^ 
near Chepultepec. Th<^y were at first repulsed with 
severe lo-s, but afterwaMs drove the Mexicans from 
their position. Chepultepec^ on a lofty hill, the last fort- 
ress outside of the capital, was taken by storm. The 
Mt^xicans tied to the citv, which was abandoned by 
San a Anna and the officiers of government. Sept. 
14(h, 1847, Gen. Scott entered the city of Mexico in 
triumph. This closed the war. It is estimated that 
thirty thousand American lives were lost, and seventy- 
Jive millions of dcjllars expended in this war. California 
and New Mexico were ceded to the United States for 
fifteen millions of dollars. 

407. War in British India. Although India has 
been long held in subjection under the British Govern- 
metit, yet there has been several revolts against its 
authority. The most dangerous of these outbreaks com- 
menced in May, 1857, and continued till near the close 
of the next year. The outbreak commenced at Meerut, 
about 32 miles from Delhi, the principal city in the 
northwestern part of India. The Sepoys, at this place, 
in the service of the British Government, felt themselves 
aggrieved by the introduction of cartridges which had 
been greased with the ta' of a sacred ariimal. It was 
also privately circulated among the Bramin Sejyoys 

406. With how many men did Gen. Scott advance towards 
Mexico? What is said of Contreras, El Milinos del Key. Che- 
pubepec and Mexico? ,What were the number of lives lost, 
and money expended? What of CaUfornia and New Mexico? 

4()7. When and where did rhe last revolt com mence in British 
India? What is said of the Sepoys, and their grievances? 



280 MODERN HISTORY. 

that the Government meant to deprive them of the 
privileges of caate, by having the bones of bullocks 
ground and mixed up with their flour, so that the 
Hindoo might inadvertently partake of it. By this tbey 
would be polluted and become outcast-^, and thus be 
compelled to embrace Christiai'ity. Most of the troops 
refused to touch the greased cartridges. A Colonel 
was killed, and a massacre of the Europeans followed. 

408. Progress of the War in India. After the mas- 
sacre at Meerut, the insurgents passed on to Delhi. 
Here they were joined by the native troops. They pro- 
ceeded to the palace oft he native king, and induced him 
to ascend tlie'throne. The foreign residences and build- 
ings were [>lundered and burnt, and a general mashacre 
of the Europeans was commenced. Tlie mutiny soon 
became widely extended. At Lucknow, Sir Henry 
Lawrence was besieged by a large force; he bravely held 
out till be was mortally wounded, and his heroic little 
band compelled to retire into an inner fort. At Cawn- 
pore, Sir Hugh Wheeler entrenched himself with less 
than 300 men, who had with them upwards of 500 
women and (diildren. The insurgents were commanded 
by Nana Sahib, who otiered them a safe passage to 
Allahabad if they would give up their guns and treasure. 
They accepted the terms, and were marched to the 
boats to descend the river. Suddenly a masked battery 
was opened and many were shot dead, others drowned, 
150 were taken prisoners. The men were instantly put 
to death, and the women and children were spared a few 
days longer. Gen. Havelock marched to the relief of 
Cawnpore, but the day before his arrival, the women 
and children were barbarously murdered and thrown into 
the well of the court yard. Gen. Havelock forcing his 
way through all obstacles entered Lucknow, and relieved 
the heroic garrison. About this time Delhi was taken, 
and the Rebellion was crushed. In 1858 the govern- 

408. What is said respecting Delhi? What was done at 
Lucknow ? at Cawnpore? of Nana Sahib > of Gen. Havelock? 
of the East India Company ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 281 

ment of the country was transferred from the East India 
Company to the British Crown. 

409. Causes of the Secession War. For a lon^ period 
it seems to have been the design of certain leading men. 
at the South, either to obtain the control of the National 
Government, or to establish a new one in the Southern 
States, whereby their domestic institutions should be 
better protected and established, than they could be 
while they remained in the Union. According to their 
construction of the Constitution, each State had a right 
to withdraw from the Union whenever the National 
Government should manifest a disposition to impair or 
abridge what they believed to be their Constitutional 
rights. The election of Abraham Lincoln as President, 
(who was opposed to the further exteosion of slavery,) 
caused the Secessionists to take immediate steps to 
accomplish their purposes. At this period, several of 
their number held important offices in the Federal Gov- 
ernment, by whose means the national army and navy 
were scattered to distant points ; 115,000 arms, of the 
most approved patterns, were transferred from the North- 
ern to the Southern arsenals. A vast amount of cannon, 
mortars, balls, powder, &c., were also sent in the same 
direction. 

410. Commencement of the War. The 20th of Dec, 
1860, the ordinance of Secession was unanimously 
adopted by the South Carolina Convention, assembled at 
Charleston, and four days afterwards, their delegation 
withdrew from the U. S. Congress. On Dec. 26th, 
Major Anderson, with a garrison of about 80 men, 
withdrew from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter. Jan. 
9th, 1861, the '* Star of the West," an unarmed steam- 



409. What is supposed ^o have been the designs of the Se- 
cessionists ? What was done by them when in the U. S. 
Government? 

410. Where was the secession ordinance first adopted? 
What is said of Maj. Anderson and Star of the West? Where 
was the Confederate government formed? What is said of the 
attack on Ft. Sumter ? 



282 



MODERN HISTORY. 



er, with a reinforcement of 250 men, and supplies for 
the beleaguered garrison, was fired on, and forced to re- 




Attack on Fort Sumter. 

tire. This roused the indignation of the people in the 
loyal States; but owing to the treachery of some of the 
leading officers of the (xovernment, the Nation was com- 
paratively helpless. Feb. 4th, forty-two Secessionists, 
from five of the more Southern Stales, met at Montgom- 
ery, Ala., and formed a Constitution of Government. 
Jefferson Davis was chosen President, and A. H. Ste- 
phens Vice-President of the Confederate States ']f Ameri- 
ca. On the morning of April 12th, 1861, a terrific fire 
was commenced upon Fort Sumter, garrisoned with less 
than 100 men. After enduring a bombardment for 48 
hours, Major Anderson was forced to surrender. Thus 
opened the most tremendous conflict aftecting human 
rights known in history — a conflict which cost the lives 
of more than half a million of men. 

411. Uprising of the People. When the news of the 
insult on the national flag by the attack on Ft. Sumter ar- 
rived, and that a defiant war was thus made on the United 
States, every loyal heart was nj,oved with indignation. 
All party distinctions, for a time, seemed forgotten. 
Such an uprising in cities, towns and villages throughout 



411. What is said of the uprising of the people, and how 
many voluuteers? 



MODERN HISTORY. 283 

the loyal Stales was nevpr before known. Apparently 
but twopartie-; remained, that of Secession, with its sym- 
pathizers, and that of the friends of the Union. On 
Monday, April 15th, President Lincoln issued a call f)r 
75,000 vohimeers for three raonihs. This call was met 
with the utmost enthusiasm. Immense Union meetings 
were held in almost everv citv in the loyal Stntes, and 
immeliatelv three hundred and fift.f thousand volunteers 
offered their services to sustain the Uni^n cause. 

412. Battle of Bull Ran. Tie first important con- 
flict between the Union and Confelei'Hte forces took 
place on the Bull Kun, a small stream about thirty miles 
from Washinorton. The Union troops under Gen. Mc- 
Dowell, 32,500 strono-, left their camp near VVashiuirton, 
on their march towards Richmond. July 2 1st ihey 
attacked the Confederates neir the Manassas Junction, 
on the riorht bank of the Bull Run. Thev were f<»und 
strona^ly entrenched, wiih masked bateries on command- 
ing heights concealed by bushes and trees. The Uni(m 
troops fougiit skillfiiUv, and bravely dr .ve the Confede- 
rates from part of their works. Victory seemed to ap- 
p-far on the Union side, till a heavy reinforcement of 
Ccmfederates under Gen. Johnson arrived on the ground. 
This decided the contest. The Unionists begaji to fall 
back, and owing to a misunderstanding of order-^, confu- 
sion prevailed. A panic seized the troops, which ended 
in a disorderly and disgraceful retreat. 

413. Capture of Hillon Head, S. C. A land force 
of 15,000 men under Gen. W. T. Sherman, in (conjunc- 
tion with a squadron of eighteen men of- var and thirty 
eight transporis un«ler Com. Dupont, sailed for the inva- 
sion of South Carolina. They arrived before the two 
forts at H Iton Head, at the Port Royal entrance, Nov. 
7th, 1801. The ships, fifteen in numb-^r, formed in a 

412. How many Union troops at the battle of Bull Run? 
What caused their def^^at? 

413. What force vvhs sent to Hilton HeMd ? Fn what maimer 
did the fleet atLack tlie fort? What was the result? 



284 MODERN HISTORY, 

line, steamed round in a circular manner between the 
forts, delivering their fire as ihey passed. When the 
wht)le fleet was in operation in this fiery circle, ^/'^y of 
the most terrible projectiles, round shot and shells, fell 
into a!id upon the forts every minute. The effect was so 
terrible that the garrisons fled out of their foris, which 
they had deemed impregnable, in such haste that they 
left everything behind. The triumph was complete. 
Beaufort, near by, the summer resort of the first pe-'ple 
of the State, one of the best harbors and military sta- 
tions on the coast secured and taken, and the Union flag 
finidy planted on the richest soil in South Carolina. 

414. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. Feb. 
3d, 1861, a combined naval and land expedition set 
out to reduce Fort Henry, a strong fortress on the 
Tennessee river, garrisoned with 7,000 men. Admiral 
Fooie, with seven gunboats, three of which were iron- 
clads, proceeded up the Tennessee. On the 6ih became 
in range of the guns of Fort Henry, when a heavy fire 
was opened upon him. He however pressed steadily- 
forward, keeping up an incessant fire, till he approached 
within 300 yards of the ramparts. Every shot was now 
terribly efi"ective — the garrison could stand it no longer, 
they abandoned everything in a moment, and fled, a 
terror-stricken rabble. Fort Dr.neUon, on the Cum- 
berland river, surrendered to the Union troops Feb. I6ih, 
1862. Its defenses were far more formidable than those 
of Fort Henry, being a clus.er of forts surrounding a 
vast central fortress. On Feb. 14th, Admiral Foote made 
an attack on the fort, but two of his gunboats being 
cripple* 1, and himself wounded, he was forced to retire. 
Gen. Grant, having invested the place, made a general 
attack, and carried several of the outworks by storm. 
Gen. Buckner, with nearly 15,000 men, was forced lo an 



414. How was Ft. Henry reduced? How was Ft. Donel- 
son captured ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 



285 



unconditional surrender. This victory opened the way 
to Nh hvill*-, which soon after w^s taken. 




Conjlict between the Monitor and Merrimac. 

415. The Merrimac and Monitor. One of the most 
important events in naval history is the conflict between 
the iron clad (jonfnderate steamer Merrima^, and the CJ. 
S. iron clad l>oao Monitor, at the mouth of James River, 
Virginia, March 9th, 1862. The Monitor was built 
iinijer jpnculiar circumstances. Washington was block- 
aded — a Confederate tieet threatened it, an<l the Confede- 
rate iron clad Merrimac was ahnost ready to ruin our 
wooden men-of-war, towards the <'Jose of 1861. To meet 
this fortnidal)Ie ship, a kind of raft boat was constructed 
by Capt. Ericsson, in which the crew were below the 
water line except those wh<» worked the two guns placed 
in the revolving turret, placed on the iron clad deck 
which appeared a few in.-hes above the water. 

The Merrimac conimenced her work of destruction by 
sinking the frigate Cumberland, and burning the Con- 
gress; she then procee ie<l to destroy the Minnesota. At 



415. Where w^is the f-onflict h»»tween the Monitor and Mer- 
rimac? By whom w.i8 the Monitor constructed, and how? 



What is said uf the Monitor aud Merrimac ? 



280 MODERN HISTORY. 

this critical timp'. wIipd all he.iru wer- fil'f^i with dis- 
niHV. the Monitor arrived tVosn Ne v Yn k, a \d l>y a few 
well direcied shots forced her to retire. Tuis was con- 
sidered hv iiiMny as a special interposition of Providence, 
as ih*^ VIerriinac never afterwards corntnitted any depre- 
dations, and was finailv dHstrovei to prevent her from 
fallinij into the hatids of the Unionists. 

416. Gen. Burnside's Expedition. Jan. 12'h, a fleet 
of one hundred and twenty five vessels under Coin. 
Goldshorouirh, with a land force of 14.000 men, un<ler 
Gen. Burnsi le, sailed for North Carolina. After a de 
tention of nearly thre«i weeks by severe storms, in the 
vicinity of Cape H^ttera-, the flet-t arrived at Roat^oke 
Island nfter a loss <if several ve-sels. The troops were 
landed, atid after a mnrt^h of two h »urs, throiii/h miry 
swamps and a dense i^rowth of underwood came upon 
ihe c^-ntrHl f.»rt of the enemy. ^ie»« Foster having^ given 
the order to siorm the hatiery, Hawkins' Zouaves rudted 
forward, raisini>; their wnr crv Z<>u, Zou, Zoa ! Their 
onset was so impetuous, that the en^ mv, surprised, 
staj^rnred, and bewildered, immediateK fled. Six forts, 
2,500 prisoners. 42 heav\ sfutjs, an! a lar<re quaniiiy of 
military stores werr* captured. Af er takino: several 
places on the inland waters of the S.aie, NewSfrn, the 
firmer capital, was taken. This place was stronglv rorti- 
find by fort-, earth works, (fee, in the vieinity. M »SL of 
these were carried by storm, an<l by the assistance of 
gun-boat^ the victory was complete. 

417. Battle of Sulloh, or Piftsh ny Landing. In 
order to stoj) the advance of the Union troops south- 
W'trd,G'n. Beauivoard made a stand ai Corinth about 
20 mdes south froui Pirtsburir Landing, >n the Tenties- 
see river. Pan of (ien (rrant's force having arrived 
at this point, 70,000 Confederate troops left (Jorinth 
April 6 h, 1862, an<l attacked the Unionists with such 

41 ti. Who were sent ;gaiii.'*t North Crtrolinn ? What is s id 
of the r)att,le of Koan<»ke Islan<l. of the Zouaves, of Newl)ern ? 

417. What C'lninia'iders were at the buttle of Shilob ? What 
result of the action ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 28 Y 

force, that they were driven from their caiTips almost 
into the river. At this critical moment, 8 000 Union 
troops under Gen. Buell appeared on the opp* site side 
of the river. Two gun-boats now arrived, and threw 
bomb-shells with great et!"ect into the ranks of the ene- 
my. Night closed upon the combatants: in the morn- 
ing the contest was renewed ; but the Confederates were 
finally driven back to their fortifications at Corinth. 
The Union loss in killed, wounded and missing, in this, 
one of the hardest fought battles of the war, was 13,508 
men. The loss of the Confederates is supposed to have 
been greater. 

418. Capture of New Orleans. To regain this im- 
portant place, a fleet of 46 vessels (ships and gun-boats) 
under Admiral Farragut, was sent to the mouth of the 
Mississippi river to reduce the two strong fortresses of 
St. Philip and Ft. Jackson. Gen. Butler, with 18,000 
men, were sent to take possession of the city. Every 
precaution was taken to prevent the passage of vessels 
up the river to New Orleans. An iron cable was 
stretched across the river; 18 iron mailed gunboats, 
with steam rams, floating batteries and fire rafts, were 
stationed along the river to repel any attempt to pass by 
the forts. April 18th, 1862, Admiral Farragut com- 
menced his attack and kept up a terrific bombardment 
on the forts for more than a week. He now resolved 
upon the desperate expedient of forcing his way up the 
river. After being under a furious fire for one hour and 
twenty minu e«, the fleet passed the forts. Seven of the 
Confederate gunboats were destroyed ; three of the 
National vessels were disabled and drifted down the 
river. The Adraifrtl appeared before New Orleans April 
26th, when it was formally surrendered to the United 
States authorities. 



418. "What commanders were sent against New Orleans ? 
Their force? What is said of the defenses of Forts St. Philip 
and Jackson ? What was the result of the attack? 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

419. Gen. McClellan — Military Operations, <&c. 
On Nov. 1st, 1861, Gen. Scott, being about 7o years of 
age, resigned his office, and Geo. B. McClellan was 
appointed his successor, as commander of the armies of 
the United States. He was a yourtg officer who had 
acquired distinction for military services in West Vir- 
ginia, and had secured in a remarkable degree the confi- 
dence and aff'ection of his soldiers. He took the com- 
mand of the Array of the Potomac, March 11th, 1862. 
On the 14th of the same month, he issued an address to 
bis army from his headquarters at Fairfax Court House, 
complimenting his men for their discipline and patience 
during the long delay incident to the work of prepara- 
tion. On the 5th of April, he arrived at Yorktown, ar»d 
began to entrench himself before that place. May 
3d, the enemy evacuated the place and fled towards 
Richmond. They were followed by the Union troops, 
and skirmishes and conflicts took place with varied suc- 
cess till McClellan reached the vicinity of Richmond. 
June 1st, the battle of Fair Oaks resulted in the re- 
pulse of the Confederates ; the Union loss was 890 
killed, and 4,844 wounded. 

The "six days' fight" before Richmond, commenced 
June 26th. The Union right wing was attacked, and 
the day closed, leaving the battle undecided. On the 
next day, the contest was renewed. Tlie Union troops 
were driven back, and the White House was evacuated. 
Incessant fighting continued all the next day ; the enemy 
were repulsed, but in the evening the Union troops were 
ordered to fall back. On the 29lh, the battle before 
Richmond was renewed by an attack on the Union 
forces at Peach Orchard ; the contest continued until 
nine at night. The Union wounded troops fell into the 
hands of the enemy. The 30th of June was distinguish- 

419. What is said of Gen. Scott and Gen. McClellan? What 
respecting Yorktown? Of Fair Oaks? Of the '* six days' 
fight" before Richmond? What was the Union loss, and what 
of the result of the expedition ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 



289 



cd by the battle of White Oak Swamp. The loss was 
heavy on both sides, and Gen. McClellan continued to 
fall back towards James River. The last of these battles 
before Richmond was on July 1st, and the Confederates 
were repulsed at every point. Gen. McClellan, how- 
ever, fell back, and securely stationed his army on 
James River, where he was defended by the gun-boats. 
The Union loss during the six days' conflict was 1,561 
killed, 7,701 wounded, and 5,958 missing. The result 
of the expedition was a serious check to the Union 
arms, and the President called for 300,000 additional 
volunteers. Gen. McClellan was recalled from Virginia; 
and on Sept. 2d, was appointed to command the troops 
for the defense of Washington. 

420. Battle of Antieiam. Gen. Lee being embold- 
ened by the retreat of the Union forces from before 
Richmond, marched on to Maryland. On his entrance 
into that State, he called on the people by a Proclama- 
tion to throw off the U. S. Government, and join the 
Confederacy. September 14th, 1862, the Confederates 
were defeated at South Mountain ; on the 15th, Har- 
per's Ferry and 12,500 men surrendered to the Confed- 
erates ; on the 17 th, Gen. McClellan's forces overtook 
Lee at Antietara Creek, when a general engagement 
took place. All the available forces of each army, each 
consisting of about 100,000 men, were on the field with 
their best commanders. The contest was severe, and 
continued all day. At night the Confederates fell back 
to the Potomac, which they crossed into Virginia, having 
been in Maryland two weeks. The total Union loss at 
South Mountain and Antietam, was 14,794; that of the 
Confederates was estimated at upwards of 25,000. 

421. Proclamation of Emancipation. After the Con- 
federates had taken up arms to sustain secession, it was 



420. Who were the opposing eommandera at the battle of 
Antietam ? What is said of the battle, the numbers engaged, 
the losses on each side ? 

24 



200 MODERN HISTORT. 

evident that no lasting peace or union could be expected 
unless slavery was destroyed. As this element of dis- 
coid had been left to the control of the several S^tates 
where it existed, President Lincoln at first declined to 
take any steps for its suppression. At length the rebel- 
lion became sa formidable, threatening the dismember- 
ment of the country, that the President, in order to pre- 
serve the Union, was compelled to issue his Proclama- 
tion of Emancipation. At the conclusion of this instru- 
ment he says: "And upon this act, believing it to be an 
act of justice warranted by the Constitution,, upon mili- 
tary necessity,. I invoke the considerate judgment of 
mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God T 
This great act of the nineteenth century, by which four 
millions of tbe human race eventually became free^. went 
into eflfect on Jan. 1st, 1863. 

422. Battle of Gettysburg. The beginning of July, 
1864, was distinguished by several important Union vic- 
tories. In the latter part of June, Gen. Lee, with the 
Confederate forces, crossed the Potomac, and directed 
his march towards Harrisburg, Penn. July 1st he was 
attacked near Gettysburg by the Union troops, under 
Gen. Meade. After a series of severe contest.-, the issue 
of which seemed doubtful, the Confederates, July 3dy 
opened an artillery fire of 125 guns on the center and 
left of the Union forcesy which they followed up with an 
assault by a heavy column of infantry. The opposing 
forces were about equal in numbers, and both fought 
with desperate courage. The attack was successfully re- 
pulsed with a terrible loss to the Confederates, who re- 
tired from the field, and soon after retreated over the 
Potomac into Virginia. The Union loss in killed, 
wounded and missing during these contests was upwards 

421. At what time did the Emancipation proclamation go 
into effect? What were President Lincoln's reasons for this 
acfi How many were emancipated ? 

422. When did Gen. Lee cross the Potomac? What is said 
of thfe battle of Gettysburg ? What loss on both sides ? 



MODERN HISTORT. 291 

of 23,000 ; that of the^Confederates is estimated to have 
been 33,000. 

423. Capture of Vicksburg, c&c. The free navigation 
of the Mississippi being obstructed by the strong fortifi- 
cations at Port Hudson and Vicksburg, efforts were made 
for their reduction. Gen. Grant, who commanded the 
Union forces, made great efforts to capture Vicksburg. 
After seveial unsuccessful attacks, its fortifications were 
found too strong to be taken by assault, without a great 
ioss of life. A canal was opened in order^ to turn the 
course of the Mississippi from Vicksburg^; Grant also 
made the attempt to approach by the Yazoo Pass and 
river. Both these attempts proved unsuccessful. He 
then moved his army down the west side of the river, 
and succeeded in the hazardous attempt to run his trans- 
ports past the Confederate batteries at Vicksburg. This 
place was now approached from the south. The Con- 
federates having been defeated in five battles outside, it 
was comjjletely invested. After a siege of forty-seven 
days. Gen Pemberton was compelled to surrender Vicks- 
burg and its garrison to Gen. Grant. The entire loss to 
the Confederates was 37,000 prisoners, 10,000 killed and 
wounded, and arms and munitions of war for 60,000 
men. July 8th, Port Hudson was surrendered to Gen. 
Banks: 7,000 prisoners and 1.0,000 stand of small arras, 
besides numerous pieces of artillery. 

42-i. Operations near Chattanooga^ Tenn, In Jan., 
1863. an important Union victory was gained at Mur- 
frceshoro^ Tenn., by Gen. Rosecrans, over the Confede- 
rates under Gen. Bragg, after a conflict of three days. 
The Union loss in killed, wounded and prisoners, was 
about 10,500, that of the Confederates 15,500. On 
Sept. 4th the Union forces occupied Chattanooga, a 

423. What forts obstructed the navigation of the Mississippi? 
What is fiaid ot Gen. Grant, and by what means did he capture 
Vicksburg? What was the lu^s of the Confederj.tes? 

424. What is ^aid of the bttle of Muifreesboi o ? of Chatta- 
nooga, of Missionary Ridge, of Gen. Hooker, and of the result? 



292 



MODERN HISTORY. 



Strong position near the south line of Tennessee, on 
the borders of Georgia and Alabama. As this was a 
point of great importance, the Confederates made great 
exertions to retake it. For this purpose they took a 
strong position on Lookout Mountain, which commanded 
the Tennessee river, by which most of the Union troops 
derived their supplies. On Nov. 23d, Gen. Grant ordered 
Gen. Thomas to Missionary Ridge^ an elevation of 500 
feet, the extremity of which he seized. Gen. Hooker 
scaled the slopes of Lookout Mountain, drove out the 
enemy, captured 2,000 prisoners, and finally established 
himself on the peak of the mountain, in full view of 
Chattanooga. Much of this brilliant action was fought 
above the clouds^ which hid the combatants from the view 
of those watching them below. Missionary Ridge was 
swept of all opposition. About 6,000 prisoners and 50 
guns were captured, the siege was raised and Chatta- 
nooga was saved. 




Sherman's army entering Savannah. 

425. Sherman's March through Georffia. Gen. Sher- 
man having made a victorious march southward from 
Chatianooga, occupied Atlanta, Ga., Sept. 2d, 1864. On 
Nov. 15ih this place was evacuated and burnt. His 



425. How far <Ud Gen. Sherman march through Georgia? 
the number of his men? ihe manner of his march? With 
what results ? 



MODERN HISTORY. 293 

array, consisting of about 70,000 men, began the adven- 
turous march towards the sea, about 300 miles distant. 
The array marched in two main columns, which, with its 
detachments, swept through a belt of country sixty miles 
wide. On Dec. 10th, Sherman arrived within five miles 
of Savannah, without the loss of a wagon. He brought 
with him a large number of emancipated slaves, horses 
andraules. On the 2 1st he entered Savannah, where 
he captured 800 prisoners, 150 guns, a large supply of 
ammunition and upwards of 30,000 bales of cotton. 

426. Capture of Fort Fuher. The capture of Fort 
Fisher by a combined land and naval force, was one of 
the most brilliant victories of the Union troops. This 
fort guarded the entrance to Wilmington, the principal 
port through which the Confederacy obtained its sup- 
plies from abroad. The first attempt against it was 
made by a land force of 6,500 under Gen. Butler, in 
connection with a fleet under Adrairal Porter. Owing 
to some misunderstanding, or from a want of harraony 
between the coramanders, the expedition proved a fail- 
ure. In the nftxt atterapt, Admiral Porter retained the 
command of the fleet, but the military comraand was 
assigned to Gen. Alfred H. Terry, a young but skillful 
and meritorious officer. Terry's force was the same as 
Butler's, with the addition of a brigade, which numbered 
about 1,000 men. In addition to these. Porter had over 
1,000 marines available for an assault. 

The fleet and transports arrived off Fort Fisher Jan. 
12tb, 1865. After a fearful bombardment from the fleet 
for two days, the assault was arranged by Gen. Terry 
and Adrairal Porter. The assaulting party was formed 
in two separate columns, one consisting of the naval 
brigade 1,200 strong, under Com. Breese, the other 3,000 



426, What is said of Fort Fisher? What of Gen. Butler's 
expedition ? What is said of Admiral Porter, of Gen. Terry, 
and of the number of his men ? Describe the attack on the 
fort, its capture, the fire of the fleet. 



294 MODERN HISTORY. 

Strong, under Gen. Ames. The naval brigade advanced 
against the fort, but its fire was so fatal that this column 
was forced back. While the attention of the enemy was 
directed to this point, the land force, upwards of 3,000 
strong, under Gen. Ames, entered the fort on the east 
side almost by surprise. A fierce band to hand conflict 
ensued, which lasted nearly eight hours. The Confede- 
rates were driven out of the fort and compelled to sur- 
render. Of the garrison 1,900' men'"^surrendered and 
400 were either killed or wounded. The Union loss 
was 1,021. During the contest the fire from the fleet 
is described as terribly eff'ective. The iron clads threw 
their Jmmense shells into the fort at the rate of four per 
minute, and were joined in their fire by more than 300 
guns from the wooden fleet, and it is estimated that for 
morCj^than two|,hours four shots werejfired every ^second. 
By sunset every gun in the fort was silenced. 

427. Capture of Richmond. March 25th, 1865, Gen. 
Lee made a sudden and overwhelming attack on Gen. 
Grant's lines by capturing Fort Steadman. The Con- 
federates, however, were soon driven out with a loss of 
3,000 men. At this time, also, Gen. Grant made a fierce 
attack on the enemy at Hatcher's Run. April 1st, 
after several desperate struggles. Gen. Sheridan succeeded 
in driving the enemy'"from their ^ entrenchments at Five 
Forks, and capturing 6,000 men. Gen. Grant now or- 
dered an attack'along the whole linejn front of Peters- 
burg. At 3 o'clock Sunday afternoon, Lee telegraphed 
to Davis, the Confederate President,^that his army had 
been driven out of its entrenchments, and that he must 
abandon Petersburg — that Richmond also must be given 
up. Upon this Davis and the principal ofiicers of gov- 
ernment fled. Early Monday morning Gen. Weitzel, 
with his soldiers,"chiefly colored troops, entered ;Rieh- 
mond without opposition. Nearly 500 guns, 5,000^stand 



427. What is said of the attacks by Gen. Lee ? Of Grant 
and Sheridan ? What of Davis ? Who first entered Richmond t 



MODflRN HISTORY. 2 

of arms and 6,000 prisoners were captured. The Con- 
federate fleet in James River was destroyed, and the city 
was fired by Gen. Ewell, before leaving^, which caused 
aiuich destruction. On April 4th President Lincoln, 
with a number of foreign ministers, entered Richmond, 
^nd was received with enthusiasm, particularly by tiae 
-emancipated slaves. 

428. Surrender of Lee's Army. Gen, Lee, after 
^baodoning Petersburg and Richmond, struck west- 
ward, apparently with the design of reaching Lynchburg, 
113 miles distant. April 5th, the main body of ithe 
Confederate army reache>d a point near Amelia Court 
House, 47 miles on its way, Sheridan, by this time, 
with his horsemen, had put themselves between Lee and 
Lynchburg. Gen. Meade, on the 6th, attacked the re- 
treating array, and after a most severe encounter routed 
tliem completely, capturing several thousand prisoners, 
among whom were Generals Ewell, Kershaw, and Custis 
Lee. Lee's position was now desperate. His army, now 
reduced more than one-half, was fairly surrounded. 
Gen. Grant having now arrived, wrote to Gen. Lee, 
asking him to surrender his army, to save the further 
effusion of blood. An interview was held, and Gen. 
Grant's terms, "That the men surrendered shall be dis- 
<^ualified from taking up arms against the United States 
until properly exchanged," was accepted. Nearly 30,000 
men were surrendered. 

429. Assassination of President Lincoln. On the 
evening of April 14th, 1865, President Lincoln accom- 
panied his wife to Ford's Theatre in Washington. Booth, 
a stage a<:'.tor, (who, with other desperate characters, had 
formed a plot to assassinate the principal officers of the 
Government,) came into the Theatre by a private en- 
trance, approached the President's box from behind, and 



428. Which way went Lee after leaving Richmond? What 
is said of Sheridan, Mead and Grant! How many men were 
surrendered, and on what terms f 



296 MODERN HISTORY. 

with a pistol shot him through the head. The assassin, 
having effectually accomplished his bloody work, leap- 
ed upon the stage, made his exit to the rear by passa- 
ges with which he was familiar, and made his escape. 
This was all done|befo7e the spectators knew of wh^it 

had occurred. Just about the time the President was 

shot down, another assassin attacked Secretary Seward, 
who was lying sick at his house. After severely wound- 
ing him, his son, and two other attendants, he made his 
escape. Ten days afterwards Booth was shot in a born 
in Maryland, where he was concealed with an accom- 
plice. 

Abraham Lincoln, having accomplished the work 
assigned him, was removed from sublunary scenes. He 
departed at the zenith of an unsullied fame. His kind- 
ness of heart, and unselfish patriotism, endeared him to 
his countrymen. His simplicity of character, his tender 
sympathy with down trodden and suffering humanity, 
joined to an iron determination to sustain the right, gave 
an exhibition of the strength of moral principle. His 
child-like trust and confidence in the Supreme Being, 
and finally his exit as a martyr, by ruffian hands, will 
embalm his memory in the annals of mankind. 

429. When and where [was President Lincoln assassinated ? 
Who by, and in what manner ? What became of the assassin ? 
What is said of the character of Abraham Lincoln 2 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

OP 

DISTINGUISHED PERSONS. 



Addison, Joseph, was an eminent English writer; he was educated 
at Oxford, where, by his application to study, and by the composition ol 
Latin verses, he became one of the most correct and elegant of writers. 
His merits as a writer procured for him the office of Secretary of State. 
His most admired writings, are his essays in the Spectator, a publica- 
tion which commenced in 1711 : his tragedy of Cato is also a celebrated 
composition. Late in life he married the countess dowager of Warwick, 
who, being vain of her superior rank, was a source of unhappiness to 
Addison, who died in 1719, aged forty-seven. 

Angela, Michael, was a painter, sculptor, and architect. In architec- 
ture he surpassed all the moderns, and was the greatest designer that 
ever lived. The most celebrated of his paintings is the Last Judgment, 
and his abilities as an architect are seen in the church of St. Peter's, at 
Rome, a building which he constructed. His style is that of grandeur 
and sublimity, united with simplicity and beauty. He died in 1563, at 
the age of 90 years. 

Ar?ninius, James, was a Professor of Divinity at Leyden, and founder 
of the sect of Arminians, whose tenets with regard to predestination, 
&c., are in opposition to those held by the Calvinists. He was born in 
Holland, and after receiving much opposition, died in 1609. His motto 
was, " a good conscience is paradise," 

Boyle, Robert, was born in Ireland, in 1626, and was the son of the 
earl of Cork. He ranks, as a philosopher, with Bacon and Newton. 
After having traveled over many countries in Europe, he settled in 
England, and devoted himself to science, especially to natural philoso- 
phy and chemistry; and to the close of life he persevered in his scien- 
tific pursuits, in which he made many important discoveries. He in- 
vented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. He showed his 
regard for religion by the purity of his life, his aversion to temporal 
honors, and his liberal benefactions in aid of benevolent and pious 
undertakings. 



BJOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

Buynan, John, was born in England, in 1628; he was of humble on 
gin, being the son ol a traveling tinker, and in the early part oi his 
lilo loUuwed the occupation ol his father. Having embraced religion, 
te became' a preacher in a iiaptist society in Bediord. Relusmg to 
conlorin to the established religion, he was imprisoned nearly thirteen 
years. VV hile in prison he wrote his celebrated allegory, '' The Pilgrim's 
Progress, Irom this world to that which is to come," a work which ranks 
high among those ol original genius, and will probably be read with ad- 
miration and profit in all ages to come. 

Burke, Edmund, was born in Ireland, in 1730. In 1753, he came to 
Londoii, w here he entered himself a student of law ; he, however, ap- 
plied himself almost wholly to literature, and by his " Essay on the Sub- 
lime and Beautiful," he established his reputation as a man of genius, 
and a fine writer. Being a most eloquent speaker, he was introduced 
mto parliament, and Ijecame one of the first orators of modern times. 
The American war he denounced with great vehemence and justice ; he 
also opposed with great force the French revolution, and his celebrated 
speech against Warren Hastings, the governor general of India, is 
among the greatest efforts of genius. 

Burns, Robert, was born at Ayr, in Scotland, in 1759. He was ori- 
ginally a ploughman, and has been called the greatest untaught poet 
since Shakspeare. His poems, which are principally in the Scotch dia- 
lect, are distinguished for their humor, pathos, vivid imagery, and energy. 
The publication of his poems introduced him into the higher ranks of so- 
ciety, ^hich ultimately proved his ruin. Habits of intemperance were 
acquired, to which his constitution gave way, and he expired at the age 
of thirty-nine. 

Bacon, Sir Francis, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born in Eng- 
land, in 15GI. He has been called "the wisest, brightest, and meanest 
of mankind." His great faculties were early discovered, and when only 
a child he was favorably noticed by Queen Elizabeth. Bacon was per- 
haps one of the greatest and most universal geniuses, that any age or 
country hais produced. His ^^ Novum Organum," with his other works, 
has immortalized his name. He was the first who taught the proper 
method of studying the sciences, and the way in which we should pro- 
ceed in order to arrive at the truth. Before his time, men generally- 
formed their theories, and then sought for facts in order to have them sub- 
stantiated ; but Bacon first found out what the facts were, and from 
chem formed his system of philosophy. Bacon, while holding the office 
of lord high chancellor, was accused in parliament of gross bribery and 
corruption ; he plead guilty, and was fined, imprisoned, and removed 
from his office. It has been, however, believed, that it was the servants 
of Bacon who committed the crimes for which he was disgra'ced. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

Baxter, Richard, a celebrated non-conformist divine, was bom in 
England, in 1615. He wrote 145 treatises, some of whicli were verj 
popular, particularly " The Saints^ Rest." In his religious views he 
held a middle course between Calvinism and Arrainianism. 

Bartra?n, John, an eminent botanist, was born in Pennsylvania, in 1701. 
He was the first American who had a botanic garden, for the cultivation 
of American and other plants. He made such proficienc}' in this pur- 
suit, that Linnaeus pronounced him " the greatest natural botanist in the 
world." 

Benezet, Anthony, was born in France, of Protestant parents, who 
came and settled in Philadelphia, He was a member of the society of 
Friends, or Quakers, and devoted himself to the education of youth. 
His whole life was spent in acts of benevolence, and he was one of the 
earliest opponents of the slave trade, and made great exertions for the 
benefit of the colored people. He died in 1784, universally regretted. 
A striking eulogium was passed upon him by an American officer, who 
attended his funeral, " I had rather be," said he, " Anthony Benezet, in 
that coffin, than the great Washington, with all his honors." 

Butler, Joseph, bishop of Durham, a prelate of distinguished piety, 
was born in 1692. His deep learning and comprehensive mind appear 
in his writings, particularly in that celebrated work entitled, " The Anal- 
ogy of Religion, natural and revealed, to the constitution and course of 
nature." This able work was first published in 1736. 

Butler, Samuel, one of the wittiest of English poets, was bom in 1612. 
He was the author of Hudibras, a satirical poem, intended to ridicule 
the adherents of Cromwell and others, which has since afforded a fertile 
source for ludicrous quotations. 

Byron, Lord, was born in Dover, 1788, and was son of Capt. Byron, 
who was notorious for his dissipated conduct. Deserted by her hus- 
band, Mrs. Byron retired to Aberdeen. The youthful Byron was of 
delicate health, in consequence of which his studies were interrupted, 
and he was indulged to an improper extent. By the death of his uncle 
he succeeded to the family titles and estates. The first work he published 
was treated with great severity by the Edinburgh reviewers. Byron 
however, amply revenged himself in one of the keenest satires of the 
age, entitled, " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." Byron com- 
ing of age, took his seat in the house of peers ; he, however, soon left 'he 
political life, and visited Spain, Portugal, and Greece. After his return 
from this latter country, he published his " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,''^ 
and other poems, which at once established his fame, and he became 
the poetic idol of the day. He died at Missolonghi, in Greece, in 1834. 
The poetry of Byron, though of a high order as regards genius and pow- 
ers of description, is calculated to have an injurious effect, particularly 
that written in the latter period of his life. Such was the moral chay^p 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

ter of Byron, and the tendency of his writings, that his remains were not 
allowed to be interred in Westminster Abbey. 

Calvin, John, one of the first Protestant reformers, was bom in France 
in 1509. On account of religious persecution he was obliged to retire 
to Basil, where he published his celebrated " Institutions of the Christian 
Religion." He settled at Geneva, and greatly advanced the Protestant 
cause. He established the form of church government called Presby- 
terian, and was the founder of a numerous sect of Christians called 
Calvinists, distinguished for their peculiar views on the subject of pre- 
destination, decrees, &c. 

Cervantes, Saavedra, was bom at Madrid, in 1549. He was the au- 
thor of Don Quixote, the hero of La Mancha, the master piece of Span- 
ish literature. This celebrated work is a strong and pleasant satire on 
the books of knight errantry, which were then so fashionable in Spain. 
It met with universal approbation ; and though written to ridicule the 
follies of a particular age, it is still read and admired in various lan- 
guages, in every part of the civilized world. 

Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of, was born in London, in 
1694. He was a distinguished nobleman, a writer of celebrity, and an 
accomplished orator. He was adorned by all the graceful arts of high 
bred jwliteness, of which he has been considered the standard. The 
governing principle of Lord Chesterfield's life appears to have been the 
applause of the world. His fame as an author rests on the celebrated 
Letters written to his illegitimate son. These Letters are written in 
an elegant and popular style; but in wishing to 'form his son for the 
higher ranks of life, he has shown himself, in some instances, the advo- 
cate of hypocrisy, licentiousness, and infidelity. 

Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, was born about 550 years before 
the Christian era. He was the most learned and virtuous man of his 
age, and rendered great service to his country by his moral maxims, in 
reforming the manners of his countrymen. His memory, and the works 
which he wrote, are held in the highest veneration by the Chinese. 

Cook, James, an eminent navigator, was born in England, in 1728, of 
humble parentage. For his abilities as a mariner he was employed by 
the British government in making discoveries in the Pacific ocean. 
He was killed by the natives of the Sandwich Islands, in 1779. 

Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, was bom in Pmssia, 
in 1473. He went to Italy, where he was appointed professor of mathe- 
matics. After twenty years of laborious study, he adopted the present 
system of astronomy, in placing the sun in the centre of the universe, 
and the earth and other planets to revolve about it. This great discove- 
ry he kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting 
against himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. His friends finally 
prevailed upon him to have his work published. He expired in a few 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

hours after the first copy was brought to him, in the 70th fear of his 
age. 

Cowper, William, an excellent English poet, was born m 1731. He 
was equally distinguished by his genius and his virtues. His poems are 
various ; but the most celebrated of them is " The Task." The general 
tendency of his writings is to enlarge the soul to every liberal senti- 
ment, and to improve the heart. Cowper was of a delicate constitution, 
and extreme sensibility of feelings ; he was subject at times to great 
depression of spirits, and at one time was insane. It is a curious fact, 
that his humorous ballad of John Gilpin, was written when he was a 
prey to the deepest melancholy. 

Dante, Alighieri, the sublimest of Italian poets, was born at Florence, 
in 1265. He early displayed his poetic talents, but the ambition of be- 
ing elevated among the ruling men of his own city, engaged him in all 
the troubles and miseries of violent faction. His party was defeated, 
and he sought safety in banishment to Ravenna. His literary works 
owe their origin to his misfortunes, and revengeful .spirit against his 
enemies, whom he wished to pierce with his satires. His fame rests 
on the *' Divina Commedia," which consists of three parts. Hell, Purga- 
tory, and Heaven. This poem displays wonderful powers of genius. 
For boundless and wild imagination, for gloomy grandeur, for terrific 
energy, it has no superior ; while on the other hand, it charms by its 
sweetness, simplicity, and grace. 

Davy, Sir Humphrey, one of the greatest of chemists, was born in 
England, in 1778, and died at Geneva, in 1829, whither he had gone 
for the benefit of his health. The discovery which has immortalized his 
name, is that of the safety lamp, which is used in coal mines, and has re- 
moved the dangers formerly experienced in working in mines. 

Defoe, Daniel, was born in London, in 1661. He wrote on a great 
variety of subjects ; but the work which stands as the most lasting 
monument of his literary fame, is his history of Robinson Crusoe, which 
for a work of the kind, has never been excelled. It is said that this 
popular novel was founded upon the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, a 
Scotchman, who lived more than four years upon the uninhabitable isl- 
and of Juan Fernandez. 

Dryden, John, gave early proof of poetic talents, and continued to 
write till his death, at the age of seventy, in 1701. He Wrote much in 
poetry and prose, and with such rapidity that it sometimes prevented 
correctness. His most celebrated works are his translation of Virgil, 
his Fables, and his Ode on St. Cecilia's Day. Dryden has been repre- 
sented as too accommodating in his religious views, to the spirit of the 
times in which he lived ; but his poetry is of the first order for beauty ol 
description, and for spirit, freedom, and melody of verse. 

Edwards, Jonathan, is considered by many as the greatest of modem 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

divines. He was born in Connecticut, in 1703. His uncommon genius 
discovered itself early, and while a boy, he read Locke on the Human 
Understanding, with a keen relish. He was a minister of the gospel 
about 24 years, and afterwards became president of Princeton College, 
in New Jersey. His treatise on the " Freedom of the VV7//," is considered 
by many of his admirers as one of the greatest efforts of the human 
mind. 

Erasmus, Desiderius, was one of the greatest scholars of the age, and 
was born at Rotterdam, in 1467. In the great question of Protestant- 
ism and Papacy, he was claimed on both sides, though neither party 
were pleased with him. He lashed the vices of the Papists, while he 
seemed indifferent to the success, or jealous of the labors of the Re- 
formers. 

Euclid, an eminent mathematician, flourished in Alexandria about 300 
years before the Christian era. He wrote on music, optics, and other 
subjects ; but the work which has handed his name down to posterity, 
is his " Elements of Geometry." The celel)rated reply, " There is no 
royal road to geometry," was made to King Ptolemy, who had asked him 
whether geometrical knowledge might not be acquired in some easier 
manner than was pointed out by the Elements. 

Fenelon, archbishop of Cambay, was born in France, in 1651, and died 
in 1715. He was one of the ablest of the French writers, and was dis- 
tinguished for his virtues. He wrote many works ; but what has gained 
him the greatest reputation, is his " Telemachus." This publication 
roused the anger of Louis XIV., it being considered as a covert satire 
against the vices of this monarch and his courtiers. Such is the merit of 
this wo;-k, though in prose, that it ranks among the epic poems, and has 
been translated into all the languages of Europe 

Franklin, Benjamin, was born in Boston, Mass., in 1706, and sei-ved 
an apprenticeship to the printing business. After his removal to Phila- 
delphia, he began those inquiries respecting the nature of electricity, the 
result of which has placed him in the first rank among men of science. 
He invented the method of guarding buildings against lightning, by means 
of rods. In 1757, Franklin was sent by his country as an agent to Eng- 
land; in 1766, he was called to the bar of the house of commons, and 
underwent that famous interrogatory which has raised his name in the 
political world. He was a member of the first congress, a signer of the 
Declaration of Independence, and in various ways rendered important 
services to his country. His " Poor Richard's Almanac," containing 
valuable maxims in prudence and economy, was first published in 1732, 
and is considered as a kind of standard for the principles of true econo- 
my. Dr. Franklin died in 1790. 

Fox, George, the founder of the society of the English Friends, or Qua- 
kers, was born in 1624. He received a religious education, and, being 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

apprenticed to a grazier, was employed in keeping sheep, and in this 
business spent much of iiis time in contemplation. Wheii aljout nine- 
teen, he believed himself to have received a divine command to forsake 
all and preach the gospel. His labors were crowned with considerable 
success, and 1609 he came to America, where he spent two years. Dur- 
ing his labors he endeavored to persuade men to regard the " divine light" 
implanted within, as being suthcient to lead to salvation. He was im- 
prisoned no less than eight times. He appeared to be sincere in his re- 
ligious tenets, and is represented to have been a meek, devout and pious 
man. He died in London, in 1G90. 

FultoUf Robert, a native of Pennsylvania, was born in 1765. He is 
distinguished for making the first successful application of steam for 
profielling boats. This was accomplished in 1807, at New York. Pre- 
vious to this, in 1787, John Fitch, of Connecticut, succeeded in moving 
a boat by steam power at Philadelphia, but for want of assistance was 
not able to perfect his invention, to accomplish any useful purpose. 

Galileo, an Italian astronomer, was born in 1564. Having construct- 
ed a telescope, he made such discoveries in the science of astronomy, 
that it convinced him of the truth of the Copernican system. At that 
period, a belief of this s3'stem was considered as heretical, and as con- 
trary to the word of God. No sooner was it known that he had embra- 
ced this system than he was summoned before the Inquisition, and was 
twice confined in its terrible dungeons, where, in the whole, he spent 
three or four miserable years. 

Gall, John Joseph, the founder of the science now called Phrenology^ 
was born in 1758, in the duchy of Baden, in Germany. He was, for a 
considerable period, a physician in Vienna ; but, in consequence of the 
Austrian government having prevented the exposition of his new doc- 
trines there, he traveled through the north of Germany, delivering lec- 
tures. He settled at Paris, where he died in 1828. The system of 
Gall, which has since been developed by Spurzhei?n, assumes, that each 
faculty of the mind has a separate organ in the brain, and that these 
organs are marked externally Ijy elevations on the cranium, or skull. 

Genlis, Madame de, was born in France, in 1746, and is distinguished 
as one of the ablest of female writers. Being oljnoxious to the prevail- 
ing faction at the head of government, she was obliged to quit France, 
in 1793. She was allowed, by Bonaparte, to return to her native coun- 
try, and he settled a pension upon her. For the last thirty years of her 
life, she wrote a great variety of works, falling but a little short of an 
hundred volumes. She died at Paris, in 1830. Her productions are 
distinguished for fertility of imagination, and purity of style. 

Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer, was 
bom in Ireland, in 1731. He was educated at the universities of Dub- 
lin, Edinburgh, and Leyden, with a view to his adopting the medical 
24 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

profession. He left Leyden, however, abruptly, and t\-ithout mouej 
wandered over a considerable part of Europe, and returned impoverished 
to London, By his literary productions he was able to support him- 
self m respectable style. His most celebrated compositions are the 
Traveler, Vicar of Wakefield, and The Deserted Village. As an author 
he stands high. His poetry, natural, melodious, affecting, and beauti- 
fully descriptive, finds an echo in every bosom ; and his prose, often 
enlivened with humor, and always adorned with the graces of a pure 
style, is among the best in our language. 

Gray, Thomas, an eminent British poet, was bom in London, in 17L6. 
As a scholar he was profound, elegant, and well informed, and possessed 
the most refined taste in painting, architecture, and gardening. His 
letters are correct, pleasing and instructive. His poems are few, but 
they are of the first order ; particularly his celebrated " Elegy in a 
Country Church Yard." 

Hale, Sir Matthew, an eminent and uncorruptible judge, was bom in 
EnL'land, in 1609. He was bred to the profession of law, and was called 
to the bar about the time of the civil wars between the king and 
parliament. He conformed to the republican government, and became 
a lay member of the Westminster assembly of divines. In 1661, he be- 
came the chief justice of the king's bench. The seat of judgment was 
never more purely filled than by Sir Matthew Hale. No influence, no 
power could turn him aside from the path of uprightness. The know- 
ledge of Hale was not confined to law, hut extended to divinity, mathe- 
matics, and history, upon all which subjects he has written. 

Haydn, Joseph, one of the most celebrated modem composers of mu- 
sic, was born in Austria, in 1732. At the age of eight, he was admitted 
as one of the choristers at the cathedral at Vienna. He twice visited 
England, and received the degree of music from the university of Ox- 
ford. His compositions amount to twelve or thirteen hundred. " His 
grand and sublime Oratorio on the Creation," says a modem musician of 
eminence, ♦' and his picturesque and descriptive Seasons, if music were 
as intelligible and durable as the Greek, would live and be admired as 
long as the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer." 

Hogarth, William, one of the most original of painters, was born in 
London, in 1697. He served an apprenticeship with a silver plate en- 
graver, and afterwards designed and engraved a set of plates to illus- 
trate Hudibras, a work which he was admirably fitted to perform, as his 
chief skill as a painter lay in his unrivaled capacity for drawing ludi- 
crous and comic scenes. 

Howard, John, the celebrated philanthropist, was bom in England, 
about 1727. He was bound apprentice to a grocer by his guardians ; 
but, being possessed of a fortune, he purchased his indentures, and trav- 
eled on the continent. Having been taken by a French privateer, he 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

was confined in a prison, and by this means he seems to have been first 
excited to compassionate those " who are sick and in prison." He now- 
commenced his career of benevolence, which closed only with life. 
Not only were all the prisons of his own country repeatedly visited, but 
he minutely explored those on the continent, " to remember (as Mr. 
Burke beautifully expresses it) the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, 
to visit the forsaken, and to compare and collate the distresses of ail in 
all countries." His glorious career was terminated, in this life, at Cher- 
son, in Russia, by a fever, which he caught in attending on the sick, in 
1790. 

Henry, Patrick, a native of Virginia, remarkable for his commanding 
eloquenccj was the first man who proposed to the colonies hostile meas 
ures against Great Britain. He declined a number of appointments vin 
der the government of the United States. He died in 1799. 

Hopkins, Samuel, D. D., a distinguished divine, was bom in Connecti- 
cut, in 1721. He maintained in his writings that holiness consists in 
disinterested benevolence, and that all sin consists in selfishness. 

Hume, David, an historian and Philosopher, was born *in Edinburgh, 
in 1711. Having made a brief attempt to reconcile himself to mercan 
tile pursuits, he gave himself up to a literary life. After having written 
on a number of subjects without much success, in 1754 he brought out 
the first volume of his History of England. This work, at first, was 
coldly received ; but it gradually became popular. The sum which was 
paid for the copy right, together with a pension from government, made 
him independent in his circumstances. His History charms by the 
ease and spirit of its style, and its philosophical tone, but it is unfaith 
ful in some instances, and a leaning towards principles abhorrent to the 
friends of freedom. His principles on moral subjects should be read 
with 'aution, as they are calciilated to undermine the foundations of re- 
ligion and morality. 

Irving, Washington, was bom in the city of New York, about the 
year 1783. He is at present one of the most distinguished American 
authors. In ISlt), he published "Knickerbocker's History of New 
York," which established his fame. He has since written the " Life of 
Columbus," the materials of which were obtained from original docu- 
ments in possession of the government of Spain. 

Jenner, Edward, the celebrated introducer of vaccine moculation. 
was bom in England, in 1749, and was bred a physician. About 1776, 
his attention was turned towards the cow-pox. For twenty years he 
pursued his investigation, and laid the foundation of that success which his 
important discovery at last obtained. Through much opposition, vaccina- 
tion was introduced into London, in 1796. It is now extended into 
every part of the globe. For this important discovery the parliament of 
Great Britain voted him £20,000. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

Johnson, Samuel, one of the greatest of literary characters, was born 
in England, in 1709, and was the son of a bookseller. He was educa- 
ted partly at Oxford, which he was obliged to leave, on account of his 
impoverished circumstances. He went to London, and, after struggling 
through difficulties, established his reputation as an author. He com- 
pleted his celebrated Dictionary in about seven years ; and while enga- 
ged in this work, wrote papers called Tke Ranibler. His " Lives of the 
Poets," is a noble model of that description of writing, and contains 
some of the choicest criticism in the English language. Notwithstand- 
ing all the labors of this " literary giant," as he is sometimes called, his 
income was not adequate to his wants. In 1762, he was presented by 
the king with a pension of 30U/. per annum, as the grant expresses it, 
for the moral tendency of his writings. He died in 1784. His life has 
been written by Boswell and others, who describe, with much minute- 
ness, the particulars of his daily life and conversation. 

Jusephus, Flavins, the Jewish historian, was born at Jerusalem, A. D. 
37, and died in 93. His History of the Jewish War, and the Destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, was composed at the command of Vespasian, and is 
uncommonly interesting and affecting, as the historian was an eye-wit 
ness of all he relates. His " Jewish Antiquities," in twenty books, 
written in Greek, is a work of great merit. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a celebrated Polish general, was partly educated 
at the military school at Warsaw, but completed his studies in France. 
When the American colonies threw off the yoke of the mother country, 
Kosciusko entered into the American service, and was made a colonel 
of engineers and aid-de-camp to Washington. He afterwards headed 
his countrymen in their resistance to Russian oppression ; but his ef- 
forts were imavailing. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the 
Russians, who treated him with great respect, and the Emperor Paul 
gave him an estate. He died in Switzerland, in 1817. 

Klopstock, Frederick Theophilus, a very celebrated German poet, 
was born in 1724, and died in 1803. His " Messiah," by which his 
name is chiefly immortalized, was pul)lished at Hallt^in 1751. He was 
likewise the author of three tragedies, called " The Death of Adam," 
" Solomon," and " David." His funeral was conducted with extraordi- 
nary pomp, being attended by the senate of Hamburg. 

Lawl, William, archbishop of Canterbury, during the reign of Charles 
I. From the moment of his attaining power, he acted the part of a fu- 
rious persecutor of those who differed from him on religious points. He 
was born in 1573, and was beheaded for high treason in 1645. 

Lavater, John Casper, was a Swiss clergyman, born in 1741, and died 
from a w^ound given by a French soldier, in 1801. The subject which 
brought him into notice, is his work on physiognomy, or the art of dis- 
cerning the character of the mind from the features of the face, Hia 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

work on this subject has been published in various languages, but its 
popularity has declined. 

Ledi/ard, John, a distinguished and adventurous traveler, was a native 
of Connecticut. He was with Captain Cooii in his last voyage, and 
witnessed his death. After suffering almost incredible hardslnps m va- 
rious parts of the world, in the course of las travels, he died at Cairo, in 
1789, while preparing for a journey into the interior of Africa. 

Lirmreus, Charles Von, the most celebrated modern naturalist, was 
)orn in Sweden, in 1707. He is considered by many as the faliier of 
X)tany. Even from his infancy, he manifested his lbn(hiess for the study 
>f plants, and he almost lived in his lather's garden. His sovereign 
iuly noticed his services in the cause of science, and besides otlier fa- 
/ors, conferred on him the honor of nobility. With an unexampled ar- 
dor in the pursuit of knowledge, Linnaeus explored the inhospitalile des- 
erts of Lapland, and exposed himself, on foot, to every sort of fatigue. 
Science is indebted to his exertions for the useful and familiar division 
of plants, animals, &c., into classes. 

Locke, one of the greatest of British philosophers and metaphysicians 
was born in England, in 1G32. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, 
he held a respectable situation under government, and wrote several 
political tracts. When Shaftslniry was obliged to flee for safety to 
Holland, Locke accompanied him, and while there he completed his 
celebrated " Essay on the Human Understanding," in the composition 
of which he had been engaged nine years. Great as are his merits in 
other respects, it is principally as the champion of civil and religious 
liberty, that Locke is entitled to the reverence and gratitude of mankind. 

j\Ialte-Brun, Conrad, a poet, political and philosophical writer, and 
geographer, was born in Jutland, in 1775, and was obliged to quit his 
native cnuntry, in 1796, in consequence of the persecution he received, 
for having written in favor of the liberty of the press, and the enfran- 
chisement of the peasants. He settled at Paris, and from 180G to 1826, 
edited the foreign fiolitical department of the Journal of Debates. 

Marlborough, Johif Churchill, duke of, was born in England, in 1650. 
He was engaged in a great variety of n)ilitary services on the continent, 
and his success has placed his name among the most illustrious of 
generals. He rescued the Low Countries and Germany, and humbled 
the pride of France. He died in 1722. 

Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated German divine and Protestant re- 
former, was the friend and convert of Luther. To the diffusion of the 
doctrines of the Reformation he powerfully contributed ; but he display- 
ed a moderate and conciliatory spirit, which was displeasing to the 
more impetuous spirit of Luther. The Confessionof Augsburg was the 
work of this reformer. He died in Wuienburg, in 1560. Even his ene 

24* 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

mies respected the virtues, the talents, the learning, and the mild tern 
per of Melancthon. 

Mdton, Jolin, the greatest of modern poeis, was born in iiOndon, m 
1608. His political and controversial writings are also justly celebrated. 
He was a firm advocate and defender of liberty, and his views on many 
subjects were far in advance of the age in which be lived. His Para- 
dise Lost is the greatest poem which modem ages have produced, in 
his life-time justice was not done to his poetry ; but posterity has, and 
will render homage to his genius. He was blind ai the lime he com- 
posed this noble work, and one of his daughters* wrote it down as dic- 
tated from his mouth. He suffered from the attacks of personal and 
political enemies, and died comparatively poor and forsaken of the 
world. 

Medicis, Cosmo, the founder of his illustrious family, was born at 
Florence, in 1389. He was so successful in couimerce, that his riches 
were superior to those of the potentates oi his times, and he applied 
the resources of his great fortune to the patronage ol the sciences and of 
learned men. He collected a most valuable library, which he enriched 
with rare and curious manuscripts ; but while tie expected gratitude 
from his countrymen, he found that his conduct was viewed with jeal- 
ousy, by the arts of his enemies. Yielding to the ingratitude of his ene- 
mies, he retired to Venice, where he was received with the greatest re- 
spect. His countrymen, however, recalled him, and placed hiin at the 
head of their government, and gave him the title of " Father ol his peo- 
ple, and liberator of his country." 

MorUesquieu, an illustrious French writer, was born in 1689. His 
great work is the " Spirit of Laws." While compiling this work he 
visited various countries for information. This work acknowledges three 
sorts of government, the republican, the monarchial, and the despotic ; 
and in examining these divisions, the author displays great depth of 
thought, vigor of imagination, and solidity of judgment. 

Morris, Robert, an eminent merchant in Philadelphia, a member of 
congress, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and 
an able financier. He was appointed treasurer of the United States, 
and during three years of the revolution rendered important services to 
his country, by his skill as a financier, in sustaining public credit. 

Mozart, Wolfgang, one of the greatest of modem composers, was bom 
in Germany, in 1756. He began to display his musical talents when 
only three years old, and by the time he was six, he was listened to as 
a prodigy, in various parts of Germany. He visited France, Italy, and 
England, and was everywhere received with enthusiasm. In his tepth 
year he applied himself closely to the study of composition. For his 
musical talents the pope honored him with the order of the golden spur. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

In 1781, he settled in Vienna, and was liberally patronized by the em- 
peror of Grerin;iny, and the court. He died at the age oi thirl y-five 

Murray, Liadley, a graininariaa, was Itorn in 1745, near Lancaster, 
in Pennsylvania. He was a member of the society ol Friends ; he set- 
tied in England, and became known by his school books. 

i\ewton, cJir Isaac, the most dlustnous philosopher ami mathematician 
that ever lived, was born in England, in 1642, and died m 1727. Al 
the age ol eighteen he entered Trinity college, Cambridge. During Ins 
abode here, he made his three great discoveries, of fluxions, the nature 
of light and colors, and the laws ol' gravitation. To the latter of these 
it is said his attention was first turned by seeing an apple fall. His 
great work, the Pruiapia, which unfolded to the v\orld the theory ol the 
universe, was not published till liiSl. The character oi iNewion is rep- 
resented as being amiable, and adorned with all the virtues of a Cnns- 
tian. The Bible he made his favorite study, and irreverence towards 
the Deity or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest 
censure. 

NeLton, Horatio, the most celebrated of British naval commanders, 
was born in 1758. He went to sea at the age of twelve, as a midship- 
man, with his uncle. After various exploits and victories, for vvhich he 
was highly honored by his countrymen, he lost his life, by a rifle ball, in 
his celebrated victory over the united French and Spanish squadrons, 
off Trafalgar, in 1805. 

Ossian, the son of F'ingai, was a Scotch bard, who is supposed to 
have flourished about the beginning of the third century. According to 
tradition, he accompanied his father in his wars, and in the latter part 
of his long life became blind. The poems that go by his name are 
marked by a simple and suMime wildness, and are the most poetic com- 
positions in the English language. They are represented as having 
been translated from the Gaelic l)y Mr. Macpherson. who died in J 797. 
Much controversy has existed about the authorship ol these poems, 
which is not yet decided ; it is believed, however, that their chief merit 
belongs to Macpherson. 

Paine, Thomas, apolitical writer, was born in Enirlaiul, in 1737, ami 
bred a stay-niaker. Comimj to America, he pnblishpd a iniinlifr of 
pamphlets, which had a powerful effect in favor of the Ameiiran rausp . 
particularly that entitled " Common Sense." He wpmI U\ ? .ondon, im 
17!)0. and published "The Ri'ihts of Man." T(» a-.id a pr.wrnition, he 
went to France, and was chosen a member of the natiorn' a-^semMy 
He returned to the T^nited States, where he de'iasei! himx'-l'"''V b'« ''e 
isticHl writjn>rs. He died in a miser;d)lp mann'r. in "^-.-^v N'.ir'. it 
l«n«. IVinmr the bitter nf^no' (>'"his life he so ,\<- r-,.>. ," l,....,.!'" ' , > ... 
.nterntierate habils, that he was shunned by the icspect^iLic pari oi iua 
associates. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

Foley, William, an eminent English divine, was born in 1745, and 
educated at Cambridge. In 1785, he at once obtained a high reputation 
by his Elements of Moral and Political Philosophy. He is also the au- 
thor of " A new view of the Evidences of Christianity and iSatural The- 
ology." Dr. Paley ranks high as an author, and his services to the cause 
of virtue and Christianity, were honorably rewarded by the patronage of 
the great. He died in 1805. 

Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of the Italian poets, was 
born in 1304, in Tuscany. He is celebrated, as one of the restorers of 
classical learning, and displayed all the powers of genius, not only in 
his native language, but in Latin. Having settled at Avignon, he saw 
the beautiful Laura, whose charms inspired him with a lasting passion, 
the effusions of which he poured forth in those sonnets and odes which 
have rendered his name celebrated. His poetry, however, failed of 
having much effect on the object of his affections. His literary reputa- 
tion attracted the regard of princes, and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at 
the same moment, invited him to come and receive the poetic crown. 

Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets, was born in Greece, upwards of 
500 years before the Christian era. Little is known of his real history. 
Of his works, which were numerous, and in various kinds of composi- 
tion, time has spared only four books of Odes ; but what it has spared is 
amply sufficient to vindicate his claim to be ranked among the most il- 
lustrious of ancient poets. 

Pitt, William, was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known by that 
name, and was the most able minister that England ever produced. He 
■was bom in 1708, and at the age of twenty-seven was elected a member 
of parliament, and soon distinguished himself by his eloquence. He 
opposed with great force the measures relating to the American war. 
In April, 1778, while rising to speak in the house of lords, he fell into a 
convulsive fit, and expired in a few days. As a statesman and orator, 
he stands at the head of men of his profession, in modern times. His 
son, of the same name, was also distinguished as a statesman. 

Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet, was bom in London, in 1688. 
He was somewhat deformed, small in size, and of a delicate constitu- 
tion. His first regular composition was his Ode on Solitude, written 
when he was twelve years of age. His Pastorals were written when 
he was sixteen, and they obtained for him the friendship of many emi- 
nent characters. This was followed by his Essay on Criticism, the 
Messiah, and other poems. The translation of the Hiad, by which he 
realized a fortune, was completed in 1720. His " Dunciad," a satirical 
work, and his " Essay on Man," appeared afterwards. 

Priestley, Joseph, a distinguished English divine, and experimental 
philosopher, was bom in 1733. He embraced the Unitarian sentiments. 
This, with his partiality for revolutionary principles, drew upon hina 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

the rage of political partisans, and his house, library, manuscripts, and 
apparatus, were committed to the flames by an infuriated mob, and lie 
was exposed to great personal danger. He came to America, in 1784, 
and took up his abode at Northumberland, m Pennsylvania, where he 
died, in 1804. His works, on various subjects, extend to upwards of 
seventy vo.umes. 

Raphael, Sanzio, was born in Italy, in 1483. By the general consent 
of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of painters, 
and has received the appellation of divine " Raphael." He also excel- 
led as an architect, and was employed in the building of St. Peter's, at 
Rome. He came to an untimely grave in consequence of his addiction 
to licentious vices, — dying at the age of thirty-seven. 

RolUn, Charles, an eminent historian, was born in 1661, at Paris. 
He filled a number of important offices in the literary institutions of 
France, from which he was removed by the intrigues of the Jesuits. 
His Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Babylonians, &c., 
is one of the best compilations of the kind which ever appeared. RoUin 
was as amiable in private life as he was respected in public : pious, be- 
nevolent, and humane, the friend of virtue, morality, and religion. He 
died in 1741. 

Rosseau, John James, one of the most eloquent and singular of wri- 
ters, was born at Geneva, in 1712. His life was somewhat eventful, 
and the strangeness and inconsistency of his character subjected him 
to trouble. His works show that he had the most brilliant genius, com- 
bined with eccentricities, licentiousness, and infidelity. By a prize 
Essay he maintained the superiority of savage nature to the comforts of 
domestic and social life. This opinion he defended for a long time 
against all the writers of Europe. His " Confessions," published after 
his death, in 1778, is one of the most singular productions of the human 
mind. 

Shakspeare, William, " the illustrious poet of nature," was bom in 
1564, in England, of a respectable family. Being connected with some 
thoughtless companions in the criminal act of taking deer, was the 
means of driving him to London. Here he became engaged among the 
players, and became an actor on the stage. From acting, he passed to 
the writing of plays , and by the productions of his pen, and by the man- 
agement of the play-house, he acquired a competent fortune, with which 
he returned to his native town, where he lived respected and beloved 
by his neighbors. He died in 1616, in the 53d year of his age. As an 
author, Shakspeare excels in originality, sublime conception, force, and 
delineation, and he has surpassed almost every poet, of every age and 
country, and is the boast of the English nation. In the midst, however, 
of his great and incomparable beauties, there are some moral blemishes 
and defects. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

Sidney, Algernon, an English gentleman, second son of the earl of 
Leicester, was born about 1620. In the time of the civil wars he joined 
the parliament's army, and was appointed a lieutenant-general of horse. 
He was nominated a member of the court to try Charles I. ; but he took 
no part in the proceedings. At the restoration of the monarchy of Eng- 
land, he became a voluntary exile for seventeen years, till his father ob- 
tained for him a special pardon. Sidney, however, was a too firm 
friend of liberty to be tolerated by the ministers of despotism ; he was 
accused of being concerned in a plot, and the most infamous perversion 
of justice was resorted to, in order to convict him. He met death, by 
being beheaded on Tower Hill, in 1681, with heroic fortitude. This 
strong republican was of extraordinary courage, sincere, but of a tem- 
per that could not bear contradiction ; a Christian in principle, but averse 
to all public worship, and an enemy to every thing that looked like mon- 
archy. He left behind a meritorious work, entitled Discourses on Gov- 
ernment. 

Stael, Madame de, a celebrated female writer, the daughter of M. 
Necker, the French financier, was born at Paris, in 1766. Her talents 
were so early displayed, that she was said to have never been a child, 
and the utmost care was taken to cultivate them. In her 20th year she 
married the Baron de Stael, the Swedish ambassador, and from that pe- 
riod she took an active part in literature and politics. At the com- 
mencement of Bonaparte's career she was one of his admirers, but she 
afterwards became hostile towards him, and in 1801, she was ordered 
to quit Paris. She died in 1817. Her works form seventeen volumes. 

Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated writer, was born in Dublin, in 1667. 
He was chaplain to Lord Berkeley, and in 1710, became active as a po- 
litical writer, and went over to the monarchial party, and received for 
his services the deanry of St. Patrick. On his return from England he 
became exceedingly unpopular ; but he lived to be the idol of the Irish. 
His " Gulliver's Travels," a satirical romance, and his Tale of a Tub, 
in which he ridiculed popery and pnritanism, were popular works. 

Thompson, James, one of the most popular poets, was the son of a 
Scotch clergyman, born in 1700. He was educated for the church, but 
this profession he relinquished for that of an author. His most celebra- 
ted work is his " Seasons,^^ which display animated and interesting de- 
scriptions of nature, in language distinguished for dignity, elegance, and 
simplicity. 

Voltaire, one of the most celebrated of French writers, was bom at 
Paris, in 1694. In early life he showed superior powers of mind, espe- 
cially a sprightly imagination. His fondness for satire directed against 
the government, caused his imprisonment in the bastile, till he was lib- 
erated by the influence of his friends. After this event he devoted him- 
self more entirely to poetry. His principal efforts were directed to- 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

wards the drama. For a long period he was a sort of dictator in the 
republic of letters in Europe. By his free remarks on government and 
religion, he contributed, perhaps more than any other one, to lay the 
foundation of that state of things which afterward existed in France, 
during tlie time of the revolution. He died in 1778, while on a visit to 
Paris, and according to some accounts, in great anguish of mind from 
reflections on the irreligious tendency of his writings. The blasplie- 
mous atheist often, indeed, appeared in his works. 

Washington, George, the illustrious commander of the American ar- 
my in the war of the revolution, and the first president of the United 
States, was the son of Augustine Washington, of Virginia, and born 
February 22d, 1732. His father died when he was but ten years of age, 
and the care of his education fell upon his mother. At this period the 
means of education were scanty, and he had only common instruction 
in the tisual branches of education. At the age of nineteen he was ap- 
pointed an adjutant-general of Virginia, with the rank of major. He 
distinguished himself during the French war, particularly atjhe defeat 
of Gen. Braddock. When the colonies, in 1775, determined to resist 
the oppression of Great Britain, Washington, who was a member of the 
first congress, was unanimously appointed to the chief command of the 
American army. He accepted the office with diffidence, and for a pe- 
riod of eight years' laborious services, refused any compensation beyond 
his necessary expenses. After his public life, Washington retired to 
his estate, and devoted himself to agricultural pursuits. He died on the 
]4th of December, 1799, of an inflammatory aff"ection of the windpipe, 
occasioned by exposure to a light rain, while attending, the day previ- 
ous, to improvements on his estate. The senate of the United States, 
in their letter, on the occasion of his death, say, — " With patriotic pride 
we review the life of Washington, and compare him with those of other 
rountries who have been pre-eminent in favor. Ancient and modern 
.lames are diminished before him. Greatness and guilt have been too 
>ften allied ; Ijut his fame is whiter than it is brilliant. The destroyers 
)f nations stood abashed at the majesty of his virtues. It reproved 
••he intemperance of their ambition, and darkened the splendor of vie 
/ory." 

Watts, Isaac, a poet and non-conformist divine, was born in England, 
in 1674. He was a writer of poetry from the age of 15 to 50. His wri- 
tings are numerous, and his name is celebrated among all denominations 
of Christians. His lyrical poems, his Psalms and Hymns, and his Di- 
vine Songs tor children, give him a high rank as a poet and a Christian. 
It is doubtful whether any other man has done as much good in repress- 
ing vice, and implanting the true principles of religion in the minds of 
nis readers, as Dr. Watts. 

Voung, Edward, an English poet and divine, was bom in 1687. His 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

most celebrated work is his "Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Ira 
mortality," a poem which abounds in sublime passages, and is wntt«n 
m a strain of pure morality, though occasionally obscure. 

Zimmerman, John George, a physician and miscellaneous writer, was 
horn m Switzerland, in 1728. and died in 1795, a victim to hypochon- 
HriRc disease. Among his works, a Treatise on Solitude has been 
highly popular. 



LEJalb 



